Resources and green transformation in enlargement countries

Data from May 2025.

Planned article update: June 2026.

Highlights

Among the enlargement countries, Montenegro generated the highest amount of municipal waste per inhabitant in 2023, with an estimated 573 kg per capita. In comparison, the EU generated an estimated 511 kg per capita.

In 2023, coal and other solid fuels was the main source of primary energy production in 5 of the 10 enlargement countries. The exceptions were Moldova, Georgia, Albania and Türkiye, where renewable sources were the most important energy source.

In 2023, Albania and Montenegro had the highest shares of renewables in gross final energy consumption, with shares of 46.6% and 40.9% of total energy consumption, respectively.

This article is part of an online publication and provides information on technology and research and development for the enlargement countries and compares this with the corresponding data for the European Union (EU).

For the articles forming this online publication, only data are used which have been submitted to and validated by Eurostat's subject matter units following the same process as for the EU countries. For Georgia, Moldova and Ukraine, data on municipal waste generation and energy productivity are not yet transmitted this way and are therefore currently not available. However, these countries are presented in the Statistics Explained articles for ENP-East countries, which are based on data supplied by and under the responsibility of the national statistical authorities of each country on a voluntary basis. Consequently, because of these separate processes, this inevitably leads to differences in data coverage between the 2 sets of articles.

Data shown for Georgia exclude the regions of Abkhazia and South Ossetia over which the government of Georgia does not exercise control. The data managed by the National Bureau of Statistics of the Republic of Moldova does not include data from the Transnistrian region over which the government of the Republic of Moldova does not exercise control. Since 2014, data for Ukraine generally exclude the illegally annexed Autonomous Republic of Crimea and the City of Sevastopol and the territories which are not under control of the Ukrainian government. Data on Ukraine from 2022 onwards are limited due to exemption under the martial law from mandatory data submission to the State Statistics Service of Ukraine, effective as of 3 March 2022, following Russia’s war of aggression against Ukraine. This exemption remained in place until the end of the martial law, on 1 July 2025.

The article presents a range of indicators on resources and green transformation, such as municipal waste generated, primary energy production, net import of energy, gross inland energy consumption, the share of renewable energy in energy consumption, and energy productivity.

Municipal waste

Municipal waste consists mainly of waste generated by households, although it also includes similar wastes from sources such as shops, offices and public institutions. Waste from agriculture and from industry is excluded. Municipal waste is waste collected by or on behalf of municipalities and disposed through waste management systems. For areas not covered by a municipal waste collection scheme, the reporting countries estimate the amount of waste generated.

Among the enlargement countries, the quantity of municipal waste generated in 2023 ranged from 283 kilogramme (kg) per capita in Kosovo ^[1] (2022; more recent data not available) to 573 kg per capita in Montenegro.

Between 2013 and 2023, the quantity of municipal waste generated per capita grew significantly in Serbia (+39.0%), with large increases observed also in North Macedonia (+21.6%), Montenegro (+14.8%) and Bosnia and Herzegovina (+10.3%, 2013-2022; more recent data not available). In contrast, the recorded amounts of municipal waste fell sharply in Albania (-28.0%) and declined also in Türkiye (-6.4%) over the period.

In 2023, the amount of municipal waste generated per capita in the EU stood at 511 kg, a slight decline (-0.8%) compared to the year before, and below only Montenegro among the enlargement countries. However, compared with 2013 when the quantity in the EU was 479 kg per capita, this amounted to an increase in municipal waste generated of +6.7%.

Figure 1: Municipal waste generated, 2013-2023
Source: Eurostat (env_wasmun)

Primary energy production by sources

Primary energy production covers national production and refers to exploitation of natural resources e.g. in coal mines, oil and gas fields, hydropower plants or in fabrication of biofuels. Primary energy production can vary due to shifts in demand (e.g. heating days), energy prices (influenced by global markets), and weather (affecting hydroelectric power and other renewables). It also changes with the depletion of resources or the exploitation of new resources. The structure of a country’s primary energy production is largely determined by its natural resources, as well as its policies regarding the development of specific energy sources, such as renewables.

Among the enlargement countries, solid fuels were the predominant primary energy source in 2023 in Kosovo (82.7%), North Macedonia (61.2%), Bosnia and Herzegovina (60.5%), Serbia (57.9%) and Montenegro (51.9%). Renewables was the predominant energy source in Moldova (99.2%), Georgia (91.4%, 2022 – most recent data available), Türkiye (57.4%) and Albania (51.8%).

In general, solid fuels and renewables together covered more than 87.0% of the total primary energy production in the enlargement countries. The only exception to this was Albania, where those 2 sources covered only 62.2% of primary energy production. Instead, crude oil and petroleum products accounted for the second highest share in Albania, at 35.7%, after renewables (51.8%) but before solid fuels (10.4%).

The shares of crude oil and petroleum products were substantially lower in the other enlargement countries, accounting for less than 10% of national primary production in Serbia (9.3%), Türkiye (8.6%) and Georgia (2.9%, 2022; more recent data not available) and only marginal or zero shares in the others. In Serbia, Albania, Türkiye and Georgia, gas represented between 1.0% and 2.6% of their total primary energy production, while Türkiye reported a share of 2.6% of non-renewable sources. Across the available enlargement countries, the share of nuclear energy in primary production was zero. Data for Ukraine are not available.

It should be noted that the above figures refer to national production. In several of the enlargement countries, there are only limited natural resources available for primary energy production. Instead, energy demand has to a large extent been covered by imports (see Figure 3 in the following section). In order to increase energy independence, there has in recent years been an increased focus on developing national energy production from renewable sources, such as hydropower, solar, wind and biofuels.

In 2023, renewable energy sources accounted for 46.0% of the energy production in the EU, followed by nuclear, with 28.6%. By contrast, only 13.7% of the EU’s primary energy production came from solid fuels, 5.3% from gas and 3.4% from crude oil and petroleum products.

Figure 2: Primary energy production by sources, 2023
Source: Eurostat (nrg_bal_s)

Energy trade

Net imports are calculated as the total quantity of imports minus the total quantity of exports. Imports represent all entries into the national territory; exports cover all quantities leaving the national territory (both excluding transit quantities). Figure 3 presents the developments in net energy imports of the enlargement countries between 2013 and 2023. The data are presented as an index (based on data standardised to tonnes of oil equivalent), with the 2013 data as base value (2013 = 100).

Between 2013 and 2023, Kosovo recorded the highest increase of net energy imports among all enlargement countries, with an increase of 94.6%. Serbia experienced the second highest with +86.0%, and Georgia the third highest with +61.5% (2013-2022; 2023 data not available). Significant increases in net imports were recorded also by North Macedonia (+31.7%) and Türkiye (+31.6%), while Montenegro (+11.6%) and Bosnia and Herzegovina (+2.0%; 2014-2023, 2013 data not available) recorded only smaller increases.

At the other end, Ukraine (-6.1%; 2013-2020; more recent data not available) and Moldova ( -1.1%) recorded moderate reductions in net imports. Albania stood out with a significant decrease over the period 2013-2023 as a whole, with -19.1%. The net energy imports of Albania fluctuated considerably over this period, with sharp falls in 2015, 2018, 2021 and 2023 countered by steep rises in 2016, 2017, 2019 and 2022.

In all enlargement countries except Albania, net energy imports fell in connection with the reduced economic activity during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020. In 2022 and 2023, most of these countries also recorded reduced net energy imports, reflecting the effects of increased world market prices for energy following Russia’s war of aggression against Ukraine. This also led to developments in energy policies towards higher energy independence, combined with efforts to increase energy production from renewable sources.

In the EU, net energy imports decreased over the period from 2013 to 2023, by 4.7%, despite increases in most years within the period. This was outweighed by substantial falls in net imports in 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, and in 2023, reflecting sanctions against Russia in connection with its war of aggression against Ukraine and sharply decreased energy imports from Russia across the EU.

Figure 3: Net energy imports, 2013-2023
Source: Eurostat (nrg_bal_s)

Energy consumption

Gross inland energy consumption is an indicator of the overall energy needs of an economy. This demand is met by primary production and net imports (with data also reflecting changes in stocks and bunkers).

In 2023, the gross inland energy consumption among the enlargement countries ranged from 797 kilogrammes of oil equivalent per capita (kgoe per capita) (Albania) to 2 404 kgoe per capita (Serbia). However, the consumption in the EU was considerably higher, at 2 904 kgoe per capita in 2023.

In Georgia, gross inland consumption grew by more than half (+57.9%) between 2014 (2013 data not available) and 2022 (2023 data not available), the highest increase among the enlargement countries. Moldova’s energy consumption also rose by close to half between 2013 and 2023 (+42.4%). In Bosnia and Herzegovina and Türkiye, consumption increased by more than one quarter, by +28.9 (2014-2023) and +26.3%, respectively. Increases above 10% were observed in Kosovo (+17.8%; 2013-2022), Serbia (+15.6%) and Montenegro (+11.2%), while the increase in North Macedonia was slightly lower at +9.4%.

In contrast, the energy consumption shrunk by -2.3% in Albania, while dropping by almost one fifth in Ukraine (-19.1%; 2013-2020, more recent data not available).

Between 2013 and 2023, gross inland energy consumption in the EU decreased by -13.3%. From a relatively steady level of around 3 300 kgoe per capita 2013-2019, consumption fell to just under 3 000 kgoe per capita in 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic. After a rebound in 2021, consumption resumed its downward trend.

Figure 4: Gross inland energy consumption, 2013-2023
Source: Eurostat (nrg_bal_s) and (demo_gind)

Renewables in gross final energy consumption

The share of renewable energy in gross final energy consumption is the ratio between the renewable energy delivered to final consumers and the gross final energy consumption, which is the total energy consumed by end users. Renewable energy sources, also called renewables, are energy sources that replenish (or renew) themselves naturally. Typical examples are hydropower, solar energy, wind and biomass; energy production from these generally vary depending on weather conditions.

Over the period 2013-2023, the shares of renewables in gross final energy consumption grew substantially in several of the enlargement countries, with the increases in Albania (+13.5 pp) and Bosnia and Herzegovina (+11.7 pp; 2014-2021) even higher than in the EU (+7.9 pp). However, for all countries there were fluctuations in these shares over the period. In particular, the shares of renewables in final energy consumption increased in all countries in 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic, with overall final consumption falling stronger than the consumption from renewable sources. In 2021, during the recovery from the pandemic, the shares fell as final energy consumption picked up again. Although this trend was the same in the EU, these effects on the share of renewables was more moderate than in most enlargement countries.

In 2023, the shares of renewables in gross final energy consumption were higher in Albania, Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina (2021; more recent data not available) and Serbia than in the EU. Moldova, North Macedonia, Kosovo (2022; more recent data not available) and Georgia recorded somewhat lower shares. This was a marked difference from a decade earlier, when all enlargement countries for which data were available had higher shares of renewables in final consumption than the EU (see Figure 5). No data are available for Türkiye and Ukraine.

In 2023, Albania had the highest share of renewables in gross final energy consumption among the enlargement countries with 46.6%, up from 33.2% in 2013. Montenegro came second with a share of 40.9%, albeit with a decrease of -2.8 pp compared with 2013, followed by Bosnia and Herzegovina with a share of 36.6% (2021; more recent data not available).

In Serbia, the share of renewables was 25.4% in 2023, slightly higher than in the EU (24.6%). This corresponded to an increase of 4.3 pp compared with 2013. The share in Moldova was 24.4% in 2013, higher than in the EU that year (16.7%). However, by 2023 it had fallen below that in the EU with a share of 23.0%. North Macedonia, Georgia and Kosovo recorded the lowest shares in 2023: 20.2% (up by 1.7 pp compared with 2013), 19.9% (up by 1.6 pp compared with 2021; earlier data not available) and 18.8% (2022, more recent data not available; the same level as in 2013), respectively.

In the EU, the share of renewables in final energy consumption increased consistently through the period 2013-2023, with only a marginal decline of -0.1 pp in 2021, with the share expanding more rapidly in the most recent years.

Figure 5: Renewable energy in gross final energy consumption, 2013-2023
Source: Eurostat (nrg_ind_ren)

Energy productivity

Energy productivity measures the amount of economic output produced, measured as gross domestic product (GDP), per unit of energy input to the production, measured as gross available energy (GAE). GAE includes energy needs for energy transformation (including generating electricity), support operations of the energy sector, transmission and distribution losses, final energy consumption (industry, transport, households, services, agriculture,...) and the use of fossil fuel products for non-energy purposes (e.g. as raw material in the chemical industry).

In the EU, the energy productivity was €9.4 per kilogramme of oil equivalent (kgoe) in 2022, rising by €2.2 compared with 2012. In comparison, Türkiye had by far the highest energy productivity among the enlargement countries in 2022, with €6.7 per kgoe. This corresponded to an increase of €0.9 compared to a decade earlier, the same increase as in Montenegro and North Macedonia, and the highest rise recorded among these countries over the period 2012-2022.

The second highest energy productivity was recorded in Albania with €4.9 per kgoe (2020; more recent data not available), followed by Montenegro with €3.9 per kgoe and North Macedonia with €3.3 per kgoe in 2022. Serbia and Kosovo both reported an energy productivity of €2.5 per kgoe in 2022, increases of €0.3 and €0.6 per kgoe compared with 2012, respectively. Bosnia and Herzegovina’s energy productivity was the lowest in 2022, at €2.4 per kgoe, an increase of just €0.1 per kgoe compared with 2014 (oldest data available).

Figure 6: Energy productivity, 2012-2022
Source: Eurostat (nrg_ind_ep)

Source data for tables and graphs

Enlargement countries — resources and green transition: tables and figures

Data sources

The enlargement countries provide data on energy and waste directly to Eurostat's units responsible for energy and environment statistics, respectively, following the same process as the EU and EFTA countries. These statistics are available free of charge on Eurostat's website.

Eurostat’s data on municipal waste are collected on the basis of the Regulation on waste statistics (2150/2002/EC) and are published every 2 years in line with common methodological recommendations. Information concerning the current statistical legislation on waste statistics can be found under 'Legislation' in Eurostat's dedicated section on Waste statistics.

The collection of data on energy quantities is based on Regulation (EC) No 1099/2008. Data are collected from EU, EFTA and enlargement countries. Data cover a variety of energy sources. Basic data on energy quantities are in fuel specific units, such as liquid fuels in thousand tonnes and electricity in kilowatt-hours. Further information regarding the statistical legislation on energy statistics can be found under 'Legislation' in Eurostat's dedicated section on Energy statistics.

While basic principles and institutional frameworks for producing statistics are already in place, the enlargement countries are expected to increase the volume and quality of their data progressively, and to transmit these data to Eurostat in the context of the EU enlargement process. EU standards in the field of statistics require the existence of a statistical infrastructure based on principles such as professional independence, impartiality, relevance, confidentiality of individual data and easy access to official statistics; they cover methodology, classifications and standards for production.

Eurostat has the responsibility to ensure that statistical production of the enlargement countries complies with the EU ‘acquis’ in the field of statistics. To do so, Eurostat supports the national statistical offices and other producers of official statistics through a range of initiatives, such as pilot surveys, training courses, traineeships, study visits, workshops and seminars, and participation in meetings within the ESS. The ultimate goal is the provision of harmonised, high-quality data that conforms to European and international standards.

Context

The EU's long-term strategy for reducing greenhouse gas emissions was laid out in November 2018, with the aim of making Europe the world's first climate-neutral continent by 2050. In December 2019, the European Commission presented the European Green Deal, set out in Communication COM(2019) 640 final. The European Green Deal is a growth strategy that aims to transform the EU into a fair and prosperous society, with a modern, resource-efficient and competitive economy where there are no net emissions of greenhouse gases in 2050 and where economic growth is decoupled from resource use. The Green Deal is an integral part of the Commission’s strategy to implement the United Nation’s 2030 Agenda and the Sustainable Development Goals.

In June 2021, the European Climate Law, Regulation (EU) 2021/1119, was adopted. It makes the goal to become climate-neutral by 2050 a legal obligation for the EU and its Member States. It sets the framework for actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by at least 55% by 2030, compared with 1990 levels, and reach climate neutrality in the EU by 2050. The Climate Law is complemented by the European Climate Pact and the 2030 Climate Target Plan.

In order to deliver the European Green Deal, the European Commission proposed the 'Fit for 55' package in June 2021. The 'Fit for 55' package is the EU's key plan to turn the climate goals into EU law and comprises a set of proposals for revision of existing legislation and new initiatives in a wide range of areas. By October 2023, the final legislation of the ‘Fit for 55' package had been adopted.

Energy has been a key feature on the EU's policy agenda for a number of years, largely as a result of fluctuating energy prices; security of supply; and human induced effects of energy use on climate change, in particular, increased levels of greenhouse gas emissions. The use of renewable energy sources is seen as a key element of the EU's energy policy and should help to improve energy security; support the achievement of a carbon neutral society; and decouple energy costs from oil prices. Energy crises have underlined the EU's need to work with its neighbours on energy security, including diversification of energy sources, routes and suppliers.

Additional information on statistical cooperation with the enlargement countries is provided in the Statistics explained background article Enlargement policy and statistical cooperation.

Footnotes

This designation is without prejudice to positions on status, and is in line with UNSCR 1244/1999 and the ICJ Opinion on the Kosovo Declaration of Independence. ↑