Archive:Agri-environmental indicator - greenhouse gas emissions

Data from October 2012. Most recent data: Further information, Main tables and Database.

This article provides a fact sheet of the European Union (EU) agri-environmental indicator Greenhouse gas emissions. It consists of an overview of recent data, complemented by all information on definitions, definitions, measurement methods and context needed to interpret them correctly. The cropping patterns article is part of a set of set of similar fact sheets providing a complete picture of the state of the agri-environmental indicators in the EU.

The agri-environmental indicator Greenhouse gas emissions measures the aggregated annual emissions from agriculture of methane (CH₄) and carbon dioxide (N₂O). Emissions are shown relative to data for the year 1990 and are expressed as CO₂ equivalents.

Main Indicator: GHG emissions from agriculture (ktonnes CO₂ equivalents per year)
Supporting Indicator: Share of agriculture in GHG emissions

Main statistical findings

Key messages

The agriculture sector produced 461 567 ktonnes CO₂ equivalent of greenhouse gases in 2010, around 10 % of the total EU emissions (excluding LULUCF (Land Use, Land Use Change and Forestry) net removals) for that year. Emissions from the agricultural sector have declined by 22 % since 1990.
The reduction in greenhouse gas emissions has been mainly due to a 23 % reduction in nitrous oxide emissions from agricultural soils due to a decrease in the use of nitrogenous fertilisers, and a 22 % decrease in methane enteric fermentation emissions caused by a reduction in livestock numbers.

Assessment

Total emissions from the EU agricultural sector

The agriculture sector produced 461 567 ktonnes CO₂equivalent of non-CO₂ greenhouse gases in 2010, a 22 % reduction compared with 1990 emissions. Between 1990 and 2010, emissions of methane and nitrous oxide from agriculture decreased by 20 % and 24 %, respectively (Figure 19.1a). The majority of this reduction was due to the combination of reduced nitrous oxide emissions from agricultural soils that decreased by 23 % mainly due to a decline in the use of nitrogenous fertilisers, and reduced methane enteric fermentation emissions that decreased by 22 %, due to an overall reduction in livestock numbers i.e. cattle and sheep (Figure 19.3a and Figure 19.3b). In 2010, the EU agriculture sector contributed 10 % of the total EU greenhouse gas emissions (Figure 19.1b). While many of the emission reductions have been achieved through reducing agricultural output, this was most likely offset, at least in part, by increased production elsewhere outside the EU. The import of food and drink into the EU has for example increased significantly since 1990. In addition, much of the EU livestock sector is heavily dependent on imported feed.
Although the total decrease in agricultural non-CO₂ emissions across the EU-27 was -22 % between 1990 and 2009, individual Member States showed widely varying trends (Figure 19.1c). Based on the official data reported by the Member States, Bulgaria (-66 %), Estonia and Latvia (both -62 %) report the largest reductions in percentage terms. In contrast, Spain (+7 %) and Cyprus (+3 %) are the only two Member States for which emissions of greenhouse gases from agriculture increased between 1990 and 2010. The increases observed for these latter Member States are largely due to increased numbers of livestock in these countries during this time, particularly swine (Cyprus) and cattle, swine and poultry (Spain) (EEA, 2012).

Methane emissions from the EU agricultural sector

Enteric fermentation of feed in the stomachs of livestock (particularly cattle) is the largest single source of CH₄ in the EU-27. Emissions of methane across the EU-27 from agriculture decreased by 50 082 ktonnes CO₂equivalents between 1990 and 2010, a reduction of 20 % compared with 1990 levels. Emissions from the two major sources of methane, enteric fermentation and manure management showed a 22 % and a 15 % decrease, respectively. The main factor behind the absolute reduction in emissions has been the economic transformation in newer EU Member States and reduced numbers of ruminant livestock (i.e. cattle and sheep) due to CAP reform providing more incentives for greater efficiencies in the livestock sector (e.g. a 26 % decrease in cattle numbers has occurred across the EU-27 between 1990 and 2010, sheep numbers have decreased more, by 33 %) (Figure 19.3a).
The share of methane emissions that occur from enteric fermentation or manure management also varies between Member States (Figure 19.2a). France is the largest emitter of methane from enteric fermentation and accounted for 19 % of all EU-27 emissions of CH₄ from this source in 2010. Germany and the United Kingdom followed, with a 14 % and 10 % share, respectively. Differences between countries are generally due to the types and numbers of livestock held within each country coupled with other factors such as climatic and stock feed differences.

Across the EU-27, almost all countries reduced emissions of CH₄ from agriculture between 1990 and 2010. In relative terms, Bulgaria (-74 %) and Latvia (-68 %) had the largest percentage decreases during this period (Figure 19.2b). Cyprus (+20 %), Spain (+15 %), Portugal (+3.4 %), Luxembourg (+2.3 %) and Greece (+0.2 %) were the only Member States that reported increased methane emissions during this period. The larger increases in methane emissions observed in Cyprus and Spain are at least partially linked to increases in ruminant animal numbers (cattle and/or swine, respectively) that occurred between 1990 and 2010.

Nitrous oxide emissions from the agricultural sector

Nitrous oxide emissions from agricultural soils are the largest source of N₂O in the EU-27. Emissions of N₂O from this source have decreased by 23 % between 1990 and 2010, largely due to a general lower use of nitrogen fertiliser on farmland in the majority of Member States during this period (Figure 19.3b).
Emissions of nitrous oxide varied widely across the Member States between 1990 and 2010 (Figure 19.4a). In absolute terms, France as the leading agriculture producer in the EU is the largest emitter of N₂O, responsible for 20 % of all EU-27 agricultural emissions of N₂O in 2009. Germany (16 %), the United Kingdom (11 %) and Poland (9 %) are also significant emitters. Four Member States have reported large reductions of N₂O from the agriculture sector between 1990 and 2010, reducing emissions by 55 % or more (Figure 19.4b): Estonia (-61 %), Bulgaria ( 59 %), Latvia (-56 %) and Slovakia (-56 %).
Changes in agricultural practices in a number of Member States have led to relative differences in the amount of N₂O emitted. However it is necessary to interpret trends of N₂O emissions in the Member States with care as a number of countries have methodological problems with estimating N₂O emissions from agricultural soils.

Greenhouse gas emissions per utilised agricultural area (UAA)

Figure 19.5 shows the aggregated emissions of CH₄ and N₂O expressed per utilised agricultural area (UAA). This analysis provides one measure of the intensity of agricultural activity within a country, and illustrates how the varying land use and agricultural practices across the EU-27 results in variations in emissions intensity occurring. Three Member States, the Netherlands, Malta and Belgium have significantly higher emissions per UAA than the other EU-27 Member States, and more than twice that of the EU-27 average, which reflects the higher intensification of agricultural activities within these three countries.

Data sources and availability

Indicator definition

Aggregated annual emissions from agriculture of methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (N2O). Emissions are shown relative to data for the year 1990 and are expressed as CO2 equivalents.

Measurements

Main indicator:

GHG emissions from agriculture (ktonnes CO2 equivalents per year)

Supporting indicator:

Share of agriculture in GHG emissions

Links with other indicators

The indicator "Greenhouse gas emissions" is linked with following other indicators:

AEI 05 - Mineral fertiliser consumption	AEI 10.2 - Livestock patterns	AEI 12 - Intensification/Extensification
AEI 08 - Energy use	AEI 11.1 - Soil cover	AEI 15 - Gross nitrogen balance
AEI 09 - Land use change	AEI 11.2 - Tillage practices	AEI 18 - Ammonia emissions
AEI 10.1 - Cropping patterns	AEI 11.3 - Manure storage	AEI 26 - Soil quality

Data used and methodology

Emissions data used in this indicator is from the official national total and sectoral greenhouse gas emissions data submissions reported annually by Member States under the EU Greenhouse Gas Monitoring Mechanism and EEA EIONET. For the EU, the data are compiled by the EEA in the report (and related database) “European Union Greenhouse Gas Inventory 1990-2010 and Inventory Report 2012” (EEA, 2012). The supporting livestock and fertiliser use data are also from EEA (2012). Utilised agricultural area (UAA) data is from the European Commission (2012).
Under the agreed international guidelines for estimating emissions of greenhouse gases, countries are encouraged to use country-specific methods wherever possible as this leads to improved emission estimates. The different methods used by countries can sometimes mean that data are not fully comparable between countries. Care should therefore be taken when analysing the trends between countries

Context

Sustainable development and the integration of environmental considerations into European Commission policy instruments are long-term objectives for the EU, as expressed for example in the 6th Environmental Action Programme and the EU Sustainable Development Strategy. In recent years there has been a growing awareness of the need to consider the concepts of sustainable development with respect to agricultural processes, a number of which can have a damaging effect on the environment. Globally, the ultimate objective of this Convention and any related legal instruments that the Conference of the Parties may adopt is to achieve stabilisation of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system. Such a level should be achieved within a time-frame sufficient to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change, to ensure that food production is not threatened and to enable economic development to proceed in a sustainable manner.
The ‘greenhouse effect’ is the term commonly used to describe the natural process through which atmosphere gases absorb and re-radiate infrared radiation from the earth’s surface, and which is largely responsible for life on earth. It is generally accepted that human activities, such as the combustion of fossil fuels, are altering the composition of gases in the atmosphere, which could cause heat that would normally be radiated out to be retained. The UNFCCC, through its Kyoto protocol, presently covers 6 main greenhouse gases: carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and sulphur hexafluoride (SF6). However, emissions of all greenhouse gases are of concern because of their global warming potential.
Like any other economic sector the agriculture sector produces greenhouse gases and is a major source of the non-CO2 greenhouse gases methane and nitrous oxide. Both of these gases are many times more powerful greenhouse gases than CO2. In addition, agriculture can significantly affect GHG balances through emissions and removals of CO2 by soils and biomass and through the emissions of GHG precursors such as ammonia, and can further affect radiative forcing through the emission of dust and aerosols or by changing the surface albedo (reflectivity of the land surface). The annual agricultural emissions of methane, nitrous oxide and carbon dioxide may be aggregated and weighted by their global warming potentials (GWP). The global warming potential (GWP) of a greenhouse gas is defined as the ratio of the time-integrated radiative forcing from the instantaneous release of 1 kg of a substance relative to that of 1 kg of a reference gas (in this instance, carbon dioxide). GWP values used throughout this indicator factsheet are the 100-year GWPs recommended by the IPCC in the Second Assessment Report (IPCC 1995), which comply with current international reporting standards under the UNFCCC and the Kyoto protocol. Methane has a 100 year GWP of 21, meaning that methane is effectively 21 times more powerful a greenhouse gas than CO2 over this time period. Nitrous oxide has a GWP of 310 over a 100 year time span and is therefore 310 more powerful in terms of its global warming potential than CO2.
Since 1990, the main factors which have influenced EU emissions of greenhouse gases from the agriculture sector, aside from general underlying economic trends, have been regulatory instruments such as the reforms of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), and implementation of the Nitrates Directive. These have both had the indirect effect of changing agricultural practices across the EU, and have, for example, led to a general reduced use of nitrogenous fertilisers and lower livestock numbers across the EU. In turn, such changes lead to specific environmental impacts occurring. In the case of the reduced livestock numbers, EU greenhouse gas emissions from e.g. cattle and sheep enteric fermentation have consequently been reduced.
This indicator has links to a number of other AEI indicators that describe developments in some of the main contributory factors that affect emissions of greenhouse gases from the agricultural sector. In particular, In particular, indicators 5 ‘Mineral fertiliser consumption’, No. 10 ‘Cropping/livestock patterns’, No.11 ‘Farm management practices’, No. 12 ‘Intensification and extensification’ and No. 15 ‘Gross nitrogen balance’ are of relevance, showing trends in such issues as fertiliser use, and changes to agricultural management and practice etc which are all underlying factors that can impact upon the level of greenhouse gases emitted from the agricultural sector. The indicator is also closely linked to AEI 18 ‘Ammonia emissions’.

Policy relevance and context

Internationally, the need to avoid and mitigate the potential consequences of climate change are being addressed through the UNFCCC, but climate change is also an issue of high priority within the EU itself. Under the UNFCCC, industrialised countries that have signed the Kyoto Protocol (the so-called Annex 1 Parties) have agreed emission reduction targets for a basket of six greenhouse gases, including methane and nitrous oxide, the two main greenhouse gases produced from the agriculture sector. The emission targets for each Party have to be achieved over the 5 year period of the Kyoto Protocol’s first commitment period – 2008-2012. In addition, the 15 pre-2004 EU Member States (EU-15 region) also have a joint emission reduction target of 8 % below 1990 levels by 2008–2012, while most EU-12 Member States (that joined the EU since 1 May 2004) have targets of -6 to -8 % from their base years (mostly 1990).
The European Union has also acknowledged the requirement to extend emission reductions of greenhouse gases beyond the initial Kyoto commitments in order to help limit the change in average global temperatures compared to pre-industrial temperatures to 2oC. The EU’s energy and climate change legislation package, finalised in 2009, sets an overall target of a 20% reduction by 2020 compared to 1990 for the EU-27 Member States. Emissions from sectors not included in the EU ETS – such as agriculture, transport, housing and waste – will be cut by 10% overall from 2005 levels under the EU Effort Sharing Decision. The EU has also pledged to increase its emissions reduction to 30% by 2020, on condition that other major emitting countries in the developed and developing world commit to do their fair share under a future global climate agreement.
Agriculture is one of the economic sectors to which the EU’s international commitment under the Kyoto Protocol to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases by 8% from 1990 levels applies. However, the 8% reduction target is for the EU-15 as a whole, and so is not necessarily applicable to each individual economic sector, or to each greenhouse gas species. There are no specific emission reduction targets set for any of the greenhouse gases or individual sectors. The same applies to the EU-27’s own legislative targets – Member States are able to reduce emissions across any of the applicable sectors in order to reach their overall reduction commitments. There is no target for the EU-27 grouping of Member States under the Kyoto Protocol.
Aside from general underlying economic trends, which can affect the level of greenhouse gas emissions, a number of European Commission policy instruments have also indirectly affected emissions from the agriculture sector since 1990. For example, the reforms of the EU Common Agriculture Policy (CAP) (aimed at changing the methods in which Member States support their farm sectors) and the implementation of the Nitrates Directive (aimed amongst others at reducing water pollution) have already led to changes in farming practices. These changes include a decrease in the use of nitrogenous fertilisers (causing a reduction of nitrous oxide emissions from agricultural soils) and decreases in the numbers of certain livestock including cattle (causing a reduction of methane emissions from enteric fermentation).
Most EU Member States expect greenhouse gas emission reductions in the future from the agriculture sector. It is expected that these savings will occur through implemented and existing policies, as well as additional regulatory, economic and fiscal measures. In particular regulatory policies and measures are regarded as being important mechanisms through which agricultural greenhouse gas emissions can be reduced. There are important differences between emission reductions achieved through reducing activities (such as reducing heads of livestock) versus reductions achieved through reducing emission intensity of production (i.e. emitting less per unit of production). The latter requires important scientific and technological advances, and also more sophisticated inventory and monitoring systems to quantify and monitor the reductions.

Agri-environmental Context

The environmental and agricultural impacts of greenhouse gas emissions are linked to the mounting evidence that emissions of greenhouse gases are causing global and European surface air temperature increases, resulting in climate change (IPCC, 2001). The potential consequences at the global level of further increased temperatures may include rising sea levels, more frequent occurrences of ‘extreme’ weather events such as floods and droughts, changes in biota and food productivity and increases of infectious diseases (IPCC 1995). These effects may subsequently have impacts on socio-economic sectors, such as agriculture and on water resources.
Relatively small changes in climate can cause large changes in agricultural productivity to occur (European Commission 1999). The current differences between productivity between southern and northern Europe are likely to increase under climate change. In the south, if high-temperature crop thresholds are exceeded then there will be a higher risk of crop failure. In contrast, if climate change in northern Europe results in a longer and warmer growing season, it may be necessary to grow a wider range of crops than is currently possible. Similarly, the inter-annual variability of crop yields and quality is expected to be very sensitive to climatic variation. If crop production is affected by water shortages, such as in regions of southern Europe, increases in the year-to-year yield variability are expected as well as reduced mean yields, adversely affecting the concerned specific market sectors and the ecosystems of the concerned river basins. The risk of low yields may possibly be mitigated in some circumstances through changing varieties and altering sowing dates (European Commission 1999). The issue of possible climate change leading to changes in cultivated crop species and its effect on future water use is described in detail in AEI 7 ‘Irrigation’ For example, the irrigated maize belt could move northwards if a warmer climate occurs. However, decreasing water reserves can also represent a threat to permanent cultures as well – in more and more southern regions, wine and olive producers maintain their activity exclusively with irrigation systems' help.
As noted earlier, agriculture is one of the sectors that contribute to greenhouse gas emissions. According to the UNFCCC emissions accounting framework, the emissions of greenhouse gases from agriculture are categorised into the following sources:
i) enteric fermentation (CH4);
ii) manure management (CH4, N2O);
iii) rice cultivation (CH4);
iv) agricultural soil management (CO2 CH4, N2O, but not including CO2 emissions/removals resulting from changes in soil carbon stocks, which are covered under the LULUCF sector);
v) prescribed burning of savannahs (CH4, N2O); and
vi) field burning of agricultural residues (CH4, N2O).
Methane emissions mainly occur from enteric fermentation in ruminant animals (e.g. cattle and sheep) and some non-ruminant animals (e.g. pigs and horses), and from the decomposition of manure under anaerobic conditions. The production of methane is therefore closely related to livestock production. The amount of methane emitted by livestock is commonly calculated as the number of animals multiplied by an emissions rate per animal, although more advanced methods based on process modelling are encouraged. The emission rates used mainly depend on the type of digestive system of the animal, the age, weight and energy consumption of the animal, and the quality and quantity of its feed intake. Emissions of CH4 from manure are calculated based on the amount of manure produced (based on the type and number of animals) and the proportion of manure that decomposes anaerobically (itself dependent on climate and manure management and storage practices). These anaerobic conditions often occur when large numbers of animals are managed in confined areas (e.g. dairy farms, beef feedlots, and pig and poultry farms).
In contrast, emissions of nitrous oxide are generated during manure storage when manure nitrogen is converted into nitrous oxide, and by the conversion of nitrogen in the soil (for which synthetic fertilisers, animal waste, sewage sludge applications, biological N-fixation and crop residues may be the source). The category ‘agricultural soils’ includes emissions from manure after spreading on soils, but excludes emissions due to manure handling. These latter emissions are included in the category ‘manure management’.
Emissions to and removals from the atmosphere of CO2 result from changes in soil carbon content in grassland and cropland under agricultural practices, and from the change of land use (conversion of grassland to and from cropland, or to and from other uses). While cropland is a source of CO2 emissions, grassland is, on average, a sink for CO2. Such emissions of CO2 arising from land use, land use change and forestry (LULUCF) sector are not included in this factsheet.
There are a number of possible farm management practices that can potentially reduce emissions of agriculture greenhouse gases below current levels. The measures vary in cost-effectiveness and practicality, but include options such as optimisation of fertiliser application rates, continuation of non-fertilised set-aside areas, improved feed conversion efficiency by optimising livestock diets, improved animal productivity and rumen efficiency through use of feed additives and breeding, better control of manure management systems to reduce the extent of anaerobic decomposition, and controlling anaerobic digestion by covering manure and slurry lagoons and capturing the methane given off for flaring or heating/power purposes (Bates 2001). Measures to reduce CO2 emissions from soils or to enhance carbon sequestration include the maintenance of permanent pasture, conservation tillage, appropriate crop rotation and cover crops.
Farm management practices for agricultural land are important for reducing emissions of N2O, as they have a direct influence on nitrogen availability through for example, fertiliser applications, crop selection and breeding. Introduction of appropriate management techniques through CAP reform or national policies provides an important opportunity for N2O mitigation in agriculture. The decrease in fertiliser use seen in the EU-27 (Figure 19.3.b) is partly due to the effects of the 1992 CAP reform and the subsequent shift away from production-based support mechanisms to direct area payments for arable production, but also to a sharp reduction in agricultural production after 1989 in the new EU Member States. The former has encouraged an optimisation of farm management processes, and led to an overall reduction in fertiliser use. Additionally, fertiliser reduction has occurred via implementation of the Nitrates Directive by Member States which has encouraged a more careful approach to the application rates of nitrogen fertilisers (including improved application technologies), and to extensification measures included in various agro-environment programmes (EEA 2011). Nitrous oxide emissions can in some situations also increase as a result of changes made to farming practices. For example, in order to reduce ammonia emissions (total emissions of which are limited under the EU National Emission Ceilings Directive), one mitigation option for countries is to phase out manure spreading onto land in favour of direct soil incorporation of manure into the soil. However, while ammonia emissions are reduced, the side effect of this measure can be to increase the amount of manure digestion that occurs under anaerobic conditions, and so N2O emissions can increase as a result (Olivier et al. 2002).
Increasing production or rumen efficiency is one method of reducing methane emissions from enteric fermentation. If production is increased, the amount of product (milk or meat) produced per unit of feed intake will increase. Increasing rumen efficiency will decrease the amount of methane produced for a given feed intake. However, this can only be quantified in official emission inventories if sophisticated emission estimation methods are used. The choice of manure management method is the key to whether manure digestion is predominantly aerobic or anaerobic, and therefore whether CO2 or CH4 is evolved. Covering manure and slurry lagoons for example, allows manure to be stored in anaerobic conditions and methane to be recovered as biogas. This can either be flared, turning it into CO2 (which has the advantage of a lower GWP than CH4), or can be used in a heat recovery system thus saving the use of conventional fossil fuel.

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