Migrant integration statistics - employment conditions
Data extracted: May 2023.
Planned article update: May 2024.
Highlights
Among employed persons aged 20–64 years living in the EU, 11.7 % of citizens of other EU Member States and 10.6 % of non-EU citizens were self-employed in 2022. This was less than the share observed for nationals (13.5 %).
Among employees aged 20–64 years living in the EU in 2022, 24.5 % of non-EU citizens were employed with a contract of limited duration; the shares were lower for citizens of other EU Member States (14.9 %) and for nationals (12.1 %).
Among employed persons aged 20–64 years living in the EU, 16.5 % of nationals worked part time in 2022. This share was higher among citizens of other EU Member States (21.3 %) and among non-EU citizens (22.8 %).
This article presents European statistics for three main indicators of employment conditions: self-employment, employment under a contract of limited duration (in other words, temporary employment) and part-time work. These three indicators are analysed according to an individual's citizenship or country of birth. Information is presented for various groups of foreign citizens or foreign-born persons and compares these with nationals or native-born persons.
This article forms part of an online publication on migrant integration statistics.
Full article
Overview
The Labour Force Survey (EU-LFS) is the source of data for this article. The main focus of this article is the age group 20–64 years. This age group is of particular interest as it is the focus for employment analyses in the Action Plan on Integration and Inclusion 2021–2027.
Three main indicators of employment conditions are presented in this article. The overview focuses on an analysis of these three indicators by citizenship and by country of birth: the following three sections – one for each indicator – present more detailed information by citizenship only.
In the EU, 13.5 % of nationals were self-employed in 2022 – see Figure 1. This was more than the shares observed for citizens of other EU Member States (11.7 %) and for non-EU citizens (10.6 %).
Among employees living in the EU, 12.1 % of nationals had a contract of limited duration in 2022; in other words, they were temporary employees. For citizens of other EU Member States, the share was 14.9 %, while for non-EU citizens, a peak of 24.5 % was recorded and this was more than double the share for nationals.
In the EU, 16.5 % of nationals worked part time in 2022. This share was notably higher among citizens of other EU Member States (21.3 %) and among non-EU citizens (22.8 %).
When analysed by country of birth rather than by citizenship, a similar pattern was observed. However, the differences between the three categories of country of birth were narrower (than for the categories of citizenship) for the share of employees with a contract of limited duration and somewhat narrower for the share of self-employment.
Figure 2 is based on the same data as Figure 1 but, instead of showing the actual shares, it shows for the two foreign or foreign-born categories the difference between their shares and the shares for nationals / native-born persons.
In general terms, in the EU in 2022 self-employment was less common among foreign citizens / foreign-born persons than among nationals / native-born persons, while employees working with a contract of limited duration and part-time employment were both more common among foreign citizens / foreign-born persons. Furthermore, these gaps were somewhat stronger for non-EU citizens / non-EU-born persons than for EU citizens / EU-born persons.
Between 2013 and 2022, the share of self-employment decreased in the EU, regardless of citizenship – see Figure 3. The fall in this share was strongest among citizens of other EU Member States (down 1.8 percentage points (pp)), while the smallest decrease was observed for non-EU citizens (down 1.0 pp). This share was lower in 2022 than in 2013 for all three categories of country of birth, however there was little difference in the magnitude of the decreases (between -1.3 pp and -1.8 pp).
The share of employees in the EU with a contract of limited duration increased between 2013 and 2022 by 2.4 pp among non-EU citizens. This was the only one of these indicators of employment conditions for which any of the categories of citizenship recorded an increase during the period studied. By contrast, the share of employees with a contract of limited duration decreased between 2013 and 2022 by 1.3 pp among nationals and by 3.1 pp among citizens of other EU Member States. An analysis by country of birth shows a fall in this share for native-born persons and persons born in other EU Member States (down 1.4 pp and 4.4 pp, respectively); while the was no difference in the share observed for non-EU born persons.
Between 2013 and 2022, the share of part-time employment decreased in the EU, regardless of citizenship: notably larger decreases were observed for the two categories of foreign citizens (down 3.0 pp for citizens of other EU Member States and 5.2 pp for non-EU citizens) than for nationals (down 1.1 pp). When analysed by country of birth, the changes were smaller, ranging from a decrease of 1.0 pp for persons born in other EU Member States to a decrease of 2.1 pp for non-EU-born persons.
Figure 4 directly compares the shares for these three indicators of employment conditions between categories of foreign citizenship and categories of foreign-born persons. For each indicator, the shares in the EU in 2022 for EU citizens other than nationals are compared with the shares for persons who are EU-born other than in the reporting Member State; equally, the shares for non-EU citizens are compared with the shares for non-EU-born persons.
- For the indicators concerning self-employment and part-time employment, the shares are very similar, regardless of whether the analysis is made by citizenship or country of birth.
- For the share of employees with a contract of limited duration, the shares were higher for the two categories of foreign citizenship than for the equivalent categories of foreign-born persons.
Self-employment
Self-employed persons are defined as persons who work in their own business (including professional practices, farms, shops and other businesses) for the purpose of earning a profit. Considering the population of employed people, for males and females aged 20–64 years as well as for young people (aged 15–24 years), self-employment was more common in the EU in 2022 among nationals than among foreign citizens (either of the two categories).
- Among females aged 20–64 years, the difference between the two categories of foreign citizenship was 0.2 pp, with a slightly higher share for female citizens of other EU Member States than female non-EU citizens.
- However, among males aged 20–64 years the difference between the two categories of foreign citizenship was somewhat larger, 2.3 pp, with a higher share for male citizens of other EU Member States.
- The difference between the two categories of foreign citizenship among young people accounted for 1.1 pp; it was higher for citizens of other EU Member States than non-EU citizens (low reliability data).
Two types of self-employed persons can be distinguished:
- employers – who employ other people; and
- own-account workers – who do not have any employees.
In the EU in 2022, the relative importance of the two types of self-employment was similar, regardless of citizenship – see Figure 6. For foreign citizens, the share of employers was 30.8 % for citizens of other EU Member States compared with 32.1 % for non-EU citizens. The share for national citizens was 31.8 %.
Among EU Member States, the highest share of self-employment among total employment in 2022 for nationals was in Greece (27.0 %) – see Figure 7. This share was also relatively high in Italy (20.4 %) and Poland (18.5 %). Most of the remaining Member States reported self-employment shares above 10.0 %, with lower shares in Cyprus, Sweden, Luxembourg, Denmark and Germany (where the lowest share was recorded, 7.8 %).
For citizens of other EU Member States, the highest share of self-employed persons in total employment was 20.1 % in Greece, while the lowest was 8.0 % in Cyprus (note that data are available for 17 Member States). In six Member States, the share of self-employment was higher for nationals than for citizens of other Member States. This gap was widest in Italy (9.5 pp) and in Greece (6.9 pp). Among the 11 Member States where the self-employment share was higher among citizens of other Member States, the widest gaps were in Portugal (6.9 pp) and Spain (5.3 pp).
For non-EU citizens (data available for 24 EU Member States), the share of self-employed persons in total employment ranged from 44.0 % in Czechia (low data reliability) to 5.1 % in Sweden. In a majority of the Member States (15 of 24), the share of self-employment was higher for national citizens than for non-EU citizens. This gap was widest in Greece (16.4 pp), Poland (7.5 pp) and in Italy (7.4 pp). Among the nine Member States where the self-employment share was higher among non-EU citizens, the widest gaps were in Croatia (32.4 pp; low reliability) and Hungary (11.7 pp; low reliability).
In five EU Member States (out of 17 for which data are available for all three categories of citizenship), the share of self-employed persons was lower among nationals than for either of the two categories of foreign citizenship: Portugal, Malta, France, Czechia and Denmark. By contrast, in Greece, Italy, Austria, Ireland, Sweden and Cyprus, the share of self-employment was highest among national citizens.
Figure 8 focuses on one category of foreign citizens, namely non-EU citizens. It shows the gap for the share of self-employment comparing the share for non-EU citizens with that of nationals. Negative values reflect a lower share among non-EU citizens.
The share of self-employment was lower for non-EU citizens than it was for nationals in the EU in 2022, a gap of 2.9 pp. This gap was notably larger for males (4.8 pp) than for females (1.3 pp). In a majority of EU Member States, the share for both sexes combined was lower for non-EU citizens than it was for nationals, in line with the average for the EU.
- The largest negative gap for males was in Greece, where the self-employment share for male non-EU citizens was 20.1 pp lower than for male nationals. Among the 23 Member States for which data are available, there were 16 others that recorded a negative gap. The largest positive gaps among the six Member States with higher shares for non-EU citizens were in Croatia and Hungary (with a differences of 31.2 and 18.4 pp, both data with low reliability).
- The largest negative gap for females was also in Greece, where the self-employment share for female non-EU citizens was 12.1 pp lower than for female nationals. Among the 18 Member States for which data are available, eight more recorded a negative gap. By far the largest positive gap among the nine Member States with higher shares for non-EU citizens was in Portugal, with a difference of 4.6 pp.
Employees with a contract of limited duration
Employees are individuals who work for a public or private employer and who in return receive compensation in the form of wages, salaries, payment by results, or payment in kind; non-conscript members of the armed forces are also included. Employees are not self-employed or contributing family workers. An employee is considered as having a temporary job if employer and employee agree that its end is determined by objective conditions: in such cases the employee has a contract of limited duration (as opposed to one of unlimited duration).
Looking at the population of employees, for males and females aged 20–64 years, the share of employees with a contract of limited duration in the EU in 2022 was lower among nationals than among citizens of other EU Member States, which in turn was lower than the share among non-EU citizens – see Figure 9. The difference between the shares for nationals and citizens of other Member States was narrower than the gap for nationals and non-EU citizens.
For young employees (aged 15–24 years), the share of employees with a contract of limited duration in the EU in 2022 was considerably higher than for employees aged 20–64 years. Furthermore, among young employees the share with a contract of limited duration did not vary greatly by citizenship.
- While the share among non-EU citizens was again the largest, the difference in the share compared with nationals was narrower than for employees aged 20–64 years.
- A positive gap was observed for young employees who were citizens of other EU Member States, as their share with a contract of limited duration was lower (by 5.2 pp) than for young nationals.
Among EU Member States, the highest shares among the total employees of employees with a contract of limited duration in 2022 for nationals were in the Netherlands (23.0 %) and Spain (19.6 %) – see Figure 10. Most of the remaining Member States reported shares above 5.0 %, with lower shares in Malta, Slovakia, Bulgaria, the Baltic Member States and Romania; the lowest share was recorded in Lithuania at 1.7 %.
For citizens of other EU Member States, in 2022, the highest share of employees with a contract of limited duration in total number of employees was 29.1 % in the Netherlands and shares over 20.0 % were also observed in Greece, Finland and Italy; the lowest share was 3.6 % in Malta (note that data are available for 16 Member States). In the majority of the Member States (12 from 17), this share was higher for citizens of other Member States than for nationals. This gap was widest in Greece (12.1 pp; low reliability) and Finland (6.8 pp). Among the four Member States where the share was lower among citizens of other Member States, the gap was the largest in Ireland (3.1 pp).
For non-EU citizens, three of the 21 Member States for which data are available recorded shares of employees with a contract of limited duration in total number of employees that were above 40.0 % among non-EU citizens; the highest share was 49.1 % in Cyprus. Shares below 10.0 % were observed in four Member States, including one below 5.0 % – Estonia with a share of 2.9 % (low reliability). In all 21 of the Member States for which data are available, the share of employees with a contract of limited duration was higher for non-EU citizens than for nationals. This gap was largest in Cyprus (42.2 pp) while it was narrowest in Estonia (0.2 pp; low reliability).
In 12 EU Member States (out of 16 for which data are available for all three categories of citizenship), the share of employees with a contract of limited duration was lower among nationals than for either of the two categories of foreign citizenship. The exceptions were Spain, Ireland, Cyprus and Malta, where the share was lower for citizens of other Member States than for nationals. In all 16 Member States, the share of employees with a contract of limited duration was highest among non-EU citizens.
Like Figure 8, Figure 11 focuses on non-EU citizens. It shows the gap for the share of employees with a contract of limited duration comparing the share for non-EU citizens with that for nationals. Positive values reflect a higher share among non-EU citizens.
The share of employees with a contract of limited duration was 11.9 pp higher for non-EU citizens in 2022 than it was for national citizens in the EU. This gap was somewhat greater for females (12.9 pp) than for males (12.4 pp). As already noted, in all EU Member States (for which data are available), the share for both sexes combined was higher for non-EU citizens than it was for nationals.
- In all Member States (for which data are available), the share of male and females employees with a contract of limited duration was higher among non-EU citizens than among nationals. The widest gap among males was 42.2 pp in Cyprus, with gaps of over 20.0 pp also observed in Poland, Portugal, the Netherlands and Sweden. Concerning females, the widest gaps (over 20.0 pp) were in Cyprus, the Netherlands, Poland (low data reliability) and Sweden.
Part-time employment
The distinction between full-time and part-time work is generally based on a spontaneous response by a respondent to the labour force survey. Among employed males and females aged 20–64 years, the share of part-time employment in the EU in 2022 was lower among nationals than among citizens of other EU Member States, which in turn was lower than the share among non-EU citizens – see Figure 12.
- The difference between the shares for nationals and citizens of other Member States was considerably narrower for males than for females.
- The shares for the two categories of foreign citizenship were quite different among males but quite similar among females.
- The shares of part-time employment were considerably higher for females than for males among all categories of citizenship.
For young persons (aged 15–24 years) in employment, the proportions working part-time in the EU in 2022 were slightly lower for young non-EU citizens than for nationals and EU-citizens. The shares of young persons working part-time were higher than for employed persons aged 20–64 years. The difference was particularly large for nationals, reflecting the relatively low shares for nationals aged 20–64 years (as the shares of young persons who worked part-time did not vary greatly between the three categories of citizenship).
For nationals, the highest share of part-time employment in 2022 among EU Member States was in the Netherlands (39.4 %) – see Figure 13. This share was also above one quarter in Austria (30.4 %) and Germany (28.1 %). Five of the remaining Member States reported part-time employment shares below 5.0 %, with the lowest share in Bulgaria (1.5 %).
There was a somewhat narrower range among the EU Member States in the share of part-time employment in 2022 for foreign citizens:
- for citizens of other Member States, the highest share was 30.2 % in Austria while the lowest was 5.6 % in Czechia (note that data are available for 15 Member States);
- for non-EU citizens, the share ranged from 29.9 % in the Netherlands to 5.7 % in Czechia (data available for 20 Member States).
Despite the relatively clear pattern for the EU as a whole, the situation among the EU Member States varied.
- In four EU Member States (out of 15 for which data are available), part-time employment in 2022 was more common among citizens of other Member States than among nationals. This gap was widest in France (5.8 pp). Among the 11 Member States where the part-time employment share was lower among citizens of other Member States, the widest gaps were in the Netherlands (12.7 pp) and Luxembourg (8.5 pp).
- In around half of the Member States (11 from 20 for which data are available) the share of part-time employment was higher for non-EU citizens than for nationals. This gap was widest in Italy (7.9 pp) and in Greece (8.7 pp). Among the nine Member States where the part-time employment share was lower among non-EU citizens, the widest gaps were in the Netherlands (9.5 pp) and Luxembourg (8.1 pp).
For 15 EU Member States, 2022 data are available for all three categories of citizenship.
- In eight Member States (Austria, the Netherlands, Germany, Belgium, Luxembourg, Ireland, Malta and Czechia), the share of part-time employment was lower for both categories of foreign citizens than for nationals.
- In Italy, France, Finland and Cyprus, the opposite was observed: the share of part-time employment was higher for both categories of foreign citizens than for nationals.
- In the three remaining Member States (Denmark and Sweden and Spain), the shares for nationals where lower than the shares observed for citizens of other Member States and higher than the shares for non-EU citizens.
Figure 14 shows the gap for the share of part-time employment comparing the share for non-EU citizens with that of nationals. Positive values reflect a higher share among non-EU citizens.
The share of part-time employment was higher for non-EU citizens than it was for nationals in the EU in 2022, a gap of 6.3 pp. This gap was notably greater for females (11.1 pp) than for males (5.3 pp). In 11 of the 20 EU Member States for which data are available, the share for both sexes combined was higher for non-EU citizens than it was for national citizens, in line with the average for the EU.
- The largest gap for males was in Cyprus, where the share of part-time employment for male non-EU citizens was 11.4 pp higher than for male nationals. Among the 17 Member States for which data are available, 13 more recorded a higher share for non-EU citizens. In the Netherlands, Czechia (low reliability) and Luxembourg (low reliability), the part-time employment share was lower for male non-EU citizens than for male nationals.
- The part-time employment share for female non-EU citizens was higher than the equivalent share for female nationals in 11 of the 20 Member States for which data are available; the largest gaps in this direction were in Italy (13.6 pp) and France (12.6 pp). The nine Member States recorded higher part-time employment shares for female nationals, with the largest gaps observed in Luxembourg (9.7 pp) and the Netherlands (17.6 pp).
Source data for tables and graphs
Data sources
The data presented in this article are from the labour force survey (LFS), the largest household sample survey in the EU. The survey covers the resident population, defined as all people usually residing in private households. As such, persons living in collective households are excluded from the target population. Usual residence means the place where a person normally spends the daily period of rest, regardless of temporary absences for purposes of recreation, holidays, visits to friends and relatives, business, medical treatment or religious pilgrimage. The data for the EU are aggregated results for the 27 EU Member States. For more information on the data sources used, please consult the online publication EU labour force survey.
Due to the sampling nature of the survey, some data have low reliability or are not published due to very low reliability or confidentiality. Data that are of low reliability are duly marked in the footnotes below the figures and tables.
Main concepts
An employed person is someone aged 15–89 years who, during the reference week of the labour force survey, performed work – even if just for one hour a week – for pay, profit or family gain. Also included are people who were not at work but had a job or business from which they were temporarily absent.
An employee is a particular type of employed person. Employees work for a public or private employer and receive compensation in the form of wages, salaries, payment by results, or payment in kind; non-conscript members of the armed forces are also included. Employees are not self-employed or contributing family workers.
Self-employed persons are defined as persons who work in their own business (including professional practices, farms, shops and other businesses) for the purpose of earning a profit.
An employee is considered as having a temporary job if employer and employee agree that its end is determined by objective conditions, such as a specific date, the completion of an assignment, or the return of an employee who is temporarily replaced: in such cases the employee has a contract of limited duration (as opposed to one of unlimited duration).
The distinction between full-time and part-time work is generally based on a spontaneous response by a respondent to the labour force survey.
Country notes
Spain and France have assessed the attachment to the job and included in employment those who, in their reference week, had an unknown duration of absence but expected to return to the same job once health measures allow it.
Context
In November 2020, an Action Plan on Integration and Inclusion 2021–2027 (COM(2016) 377 final) was adopted with the purpose of fostering social cohesion and building inclusive societies for all. Inclusion for all is about ensuring that all policies are accessible to and work for everyone, including migrants and EU citizens with migrant background. This plan includes actions in four sectoral areas (education and training, employment and skills, health and housing) as well as actions supporting effective integration and inclusion in all sectoral areas at the EU, Member State and regional level, with a specific attention paid to young people.
More information on the policies and legislation in force in this area can be found in an introductory article on migrant integration statistics.
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Related articles
Methodology
- Employment (mii_emp)
- Employment and self-employment (mii_em)
- LFS series – Detailed annual survey results (ESMS metadata file – lfsa_esms)
- EU labour force survey
- Labour force survey – methodology – main concepts