Technology in enlargement countries (digital transformation)

Data from May 2025.

Planned article update: July 2026.

Highlights

Between 2014 and 2024, the share of households with access to the internet at home increased from 60.2% to 96.5% in Türkiye, the strongest growth among the enlargement countries in the period and higher than in the EU in 2024.

Among the enlargement countries, North Macedonia had the highest share of daily internet users in 2024 (88.0% of the population). This almost matched the EU average that year (88.3%).

In 2023, the highest share of GDP spent on research and development among the enlargement countries was observed in Türkiye, with 1.42%. In comparison, the EU average was 2.24%.

This article is part of an online publication and provides information on technology and research and development for the enlargement countries and compares this with the corresponding data for the European Union (EU).

For the articles forming this online publication, only data are used which have been submitted to and validated by Eurostat's subject matter units following the same process as for the EU countries. For Georgia, Moldova and Ukraine, data on information and communication technologies and research and development are not yet transmitted according to this process, thus they are not yet available. However, data on these countries are presented in the Statistics Explained articles for ENP-East countries, which are based on data supplied by and under the responsibility of the national statistical authorities of each country on a voluntary basis. These data are not validated by Eurostat’s subject matter units.

The article presents a range of technology and research and development (R&D) indicators such as the shares of households with internet access, individuals’ frequency of internet use, gross domestic expenditure on R&D (GERD) and GERD by source of funds.

Access to the internet

The data presented in Figure 1 underlines the evolving landscape of households with internet access at home in the enlargement countries between 2014 and 2024, highlighting significant progress over the decade. ‘Internet access’ refers to whether anyone in the household could use the internet at home if they wanted. This is independent of the device used (e.g. computer, smartphone) or the type of connection (DSL, cable net, mobile data net, public Wi-Fi, etc.).

Figure 1: Households with access to the internet at home, 2014-2024
Source: Eurostat (isoc_ci_in_h)

Between 2014 and 2024, the share of households with access to the internet at home increased in all enlargement countries for which data are available, as well as in the EU. Among the 5 enlargement countries for which data were available for 2024, only Türkiye (96.5%) reported a higher share of households with access to the internet at home than the EU (94.1%). However, the latest available data for Albania (97.7%; 2023 data) and Kosovo^[1] (96.4%; 2020 data) also lay above the EU in the corresponding reference years.

The share of households with internet access at home increased each year in the period 2014-2024 in all the enlargement countries and the EU, with the exception of Albania in 2023 (-0.7 percentage points (pp)) and North Macedonia in 2017 (-1.7 pp) and 2020 (-2.2 pp). In Kosovo, the share stayed unchanged from 2018 to 2019.

By far the strongest growth was observed in Türkiye, where the share of households with internet access at home grew by 36.2 pp over the period 2014-2024. The share in 2014, 60.2%, was the lowest observed in any of the enlargement countries throughout the period. By 2024, the share had increased to 96.5%. However, it should be noted that Türkiye is the only enlargement country for which data are available for the whole period.

Large increases in the internet access of households were noted also in Serbia and North Macedonia. In Serbia, the share rose by 25.1 pp from 63.8% in 2015 to 88.9% in 2024 (2014 and 2016 data not available). Despite the decreases observed in 2017 and 2020, the share in North Macedonia increased by 22.5 pp from 68.3% in 2014 to 90.8% in 2024.

In Albania, the share of households with home access to the internet increased by 14.1 pp from 83.6% in 2018 (2014-2017 data not available) to 97.7% in 2023 (2024 data not available). Despite being the highest share among the available data from the enlargement countries in 2023, as well as being higher than in the EU, this still represented a fall of -0.7 pp from 98.4% in 2022.

Data for Kosovo are available from 2017, when the share of households with access to the internet at home was 88.8%. This was higher than the corresponding share in the EU that year (85.8%). By 2020, the most recent year for which data are available, the share had grown to 96.4%, which was also higher than in the EU.

In 2017, 70.6% of the households in Montenegro had access to the internet at home. This share increased by 13.9 pp to 84.5% by 2024; data are not available before 2017.

Overall, the share of households with internet access in Bosnia and Herzegovina increased from 69.2% in 2018 to 84.2% in 2024, representing a growth of 15.0 pp between these years. Nevertheless, this was the lowest share recorded among the enlargement countries in 2024. Data for Bosnia and Herzegovina are not available for 2014-2017 and 2022.

In the EU, the share of households with access to internet at home rose from 79.6% in 2014 to 94.1% in 2024, corresponding to an increase of 14.5 pp over this period.

Frequency of internet use

Figure 2 presents data on the share of the population aged 16-74 in the enlargement countries and in the EU that used the internet either daily or at least weekly. Data are presented for 2014 and 2024, respectively. The data refer to the internet use in the three months prior to the survey date.

Figure 2: Frequency of internet use, 2014 and 2024
Source: Eurostat (isoc_ci_ifp_fu)

Across the enlargement countries for which data are available for both years, as well as in the EU, the share of daily internet users increased from 2014 to 2024. In all cases, the share of daily internet users exceeded 80% in 2024. In contrast, the share of weekly but not daily internet users fell from 2014 to 2024. The share of persons that used the internet only weekly was less than 3% in 2024 in all enlargement countries for which data are available. In the EU, this share was 3.4%. Data are not available for Kosovo.

In 2024, the share of daily internet users was 88.0% in North Macedonia and 87.2 in Montenegro, close to the level in the EU (88.3%). In Bosnia and Herzegovina (84.7%), Serbia (84.5%), Türkiye (84.2%) and Albania (83.0%; 2023 data instead of 2024), the shares of daily internet users were relatively similar to each other, at a slightly lower level.

In Türkiye, the share of daily internet users had more than doubled between 2014 and 2024, by 49.7 pp. Also North Macedonia and Serbia saw strong growth in internet take-up over the period, with the shares of daily internet users increasing by 34.9 pp and 29.9 pp (2015-2024), respectively. In comparison, the share of daily internet users in the EU grew by 25.6 pp over the period, reflecting that the share of daily internet users was notably higher in the EU than in these enlargement countries in 2014.

Mirroring these increases in the shares of daily users, the shares of persons that used the internet weekly but not daily decreased significantly both in these enlargement countries and in the EU.

Research and development expenditure

During the last decades, the EU has encouraged increasing levels of investment research and innovation, in order to strengthen the EU's competitiveness. Research and Development (R & D) expenditure measured as a percentage of GDP, shown in Figure 3, is a measure of ‘R & D intensity’ in the economy. This reflects the share of the economy’s value added that is invested in R & D activities aimed at developing and creating new products, processes, and technologies. The R & D expenditure as percentage of GDP can be compared over time and between economies. Countries that have higher economic output per person normally have a higher degree of R & D intensity than the ones with lower economic output.

In line with this, in 2023 (or the most recent year available) the R & D intensity in the EU was between 1.6 times (Türkiye) and 11.8 times (Bosnia and Herzegovina; 2021 data) higher than in the enlargement countries for which data are available.

In 2023, R & D expenditure in Türkiye corresponded to 1.42% of the country’s GDP, an increase from 0.81% a decade earlier. The R & D intensity of Türkiye was the highest among the enlargement countries, by some distance. The second highest R & D intensity was observed in Serbia, at 0.88% of GDP in 2023. In 2013, the R & D intensity in Serbia had stood at 0.66%, much closer to that in Türkiye at the time.

In North Macedonia, the R & D intensity decreased from a level of 0.44% of GDP in 2015 and 2016 to 0.35% in 2017. It recovered only slightly in the subsequent years, reaching 0.37% in 2023. Data for North Macedonia are not available for 2013, 2014 and 2021.

Data are only available for the period 2013-2019 for Montenegro. The R & D intensity was 0.37% of GDP in 2013. It varied only slightly around this level until 2017, far below the levels in the EU as well as Türkiye and Serbia. In 2018, the intensity spiked at 0.50% of GDP, followed by a return to the previous level with an R & D intensity of 0.36% in 2019, the most recent data available.

The lowest R & D intensities were observed in Albania and Bosnia and Herzegovina. Data availability is limited for both countries. R & D expenditure in Albania accounted for only 0.19% of GDP in 2021 and 0.20% in 2022, the only data available for the country. R & D expenditure in Bosnia and Herzegovina was 0.32% of GDP in 2013, decreasing to 0.26% in the following year. Data are not available for the subsequent period, from 2015 to 2018, but by 2019 the R & D intensity had fallen to 0.19% of GDP. It fluctuated only marginally in 2020 and 2021, the last years for which data are available.

Data are not available for Kosovo.

The estimated R & D intensity in the EU remained at a significantly higher level than in the enlargement countries over the period 2013-2023. Following incremental growth from 2.08% of GDP in 2013 to 2.10% in 2016, increases in R & D intensity accelerated in the subsequent year, peaking at 2.28% in 2020. It should be noted that GDP in the EU fell in 2020, in connection with the COVID-19 pandemic, which may have contributed to a higher ratio of R & D expenditure relative to GDP than in previous years. Following that peak, the R & D intensity slightly decreased again to a level at around 2.24% in 2021-2023. This was still higher than the 2.21 registered in 2019, before the pandemic.

Figure 3: Gross domestic expenditure on research and development, 2013-2023
Source: Eurostat (rd_e_gerdtot)

Gross domestic expenditure on R & D, often abbreviated 'GERD', can be funded by business enterprise sector, higher education sector, the government sector or private non-profit sector, or be funded from abroad (e.g. by mother companies or R & D entities of international enterprise groups situated in other countries). R & D expenditure by source of funds describes the structure of R & D funding according to where these funds come from.

Data on R & D expenditure by the sources of these funds are presented for the years 2012 and 2022 in Figure 4. The data show significant differences with respect to the sources and structures of R & D funding between the enlargement countries and the EU. Data for Albania and Kosovo are not available.

In Bosnia and Herzegovina, around half (48.7%) of the funds for R & D were provided from abroad in 2012. By 2021 (2022 data are not available), the structure of R & D funding had changed significantly, with the share of funds from abroad falling to just 8.8% of the total. Instead, the share of R & D funding from the government sector had increased from 26.8% to 43.1% (+16.1 pp) and the share from business enterprise sector from 17.1% to 38.7% (+21.6 pp).

In Montenegro, data for recent years are not available. In 2013 (data for 2012 are not available), the business enterprise sector was the source of the majority of R & D funds, accounting for 42.3% of total R & D funding. Among the other sectors, the government also played an important funding role with a share of 31.7% of the total, while R & D funding from abroad represented 22.5%. Higher education sector contributed only 3.5% to the total.

In 2022, the government sector accounted for 46.0% of total R & D funding in North Macedonia, with the business enterprise sector contributing 25.9%, higher education sector 23.8% and foreign sources 4.2%. No data are available for 2012.

In Serbia, the government sector and the higher education sector were the main sources of funds for R & D, together accounting for more than 80.0% of the total in both 2012 and 2022. However, whereas the share of funding from the government sector decreased from 51.3% in 2012 to 39.3% in 2022, the share for higher education sector increased from 33.7% to 41.9%. The share of funding from abroad also grew, from 9.2% to 17.6%, while funding from the business enterprise sector remained small, falling from 5.8% to just 1.3%.

Türkiye was the enlargement country where the structure of R & D funding was most similar to that in the EU. In Türkiye, the main source of funding was the business enterprise sector, accounting for around half of total funding in both 2012 and 2022 (46.8% and 50.2%, respectively). The other main sources were the government sector, which accounted for 28.2% in 2012, rising to 32.8% in 2022, and the higher education sector (21.1% in 2012, decreasing to 15.7% in 2022). In 2012, Türkiye was the only enlargement country where R & D funding from the private non-profit sector played a notable role, with a share of 3.4% of the total. However, by 2022 it had fallen to an insignificant level also in Türkiye (0.02%), in line with the other enlargement countries. R & D funding from abroad made up only a marginal share of the total, representing 0.6% in 2012 and 1.3% in 2022.

Overall, the private non-profit sector only provided marginal contributions to total R & D funding in the enlargement countries, with shares generally 0.06% or less. The only exceptions were Bosnia and Herzegovina in 2021 (0.4%; 2022 data not available) and Türkiye in 2012 (3.4%).

In the EU, the analysis of the structure of R & D expenditure shows that the business enterprise sector remained the main source for funding, with the share of total R & D funding increasing from 56.5% in 2012 to 57.7% in 2021 (2022 data are not available). The government sector provided the second largest share, decreasing from 33.3% to 30.3% over the decade. The contribution from abroad, i.e. funding from outside the EU, was 8.3% in 2012, raising to 9.7% in 2021. In contrast to the available data from the enlargement countries, the higher education sector accounted for only a minor share of R & D funding in the EU, accounting for 0.8% in 2012 and 1.2% in 2021. The share of funding by the private non-profit sector was slightly higher in the EU than in those countries, but still accounted for only 1.2% in both 2012 and 2021.

Figure 4: Gross domestic expenditure on research and development by source of funds, 2012 and 2022
Source: Eurostat (rd_e_gerdfund)

Source data for tables and graphs

Enlargement countries – information and communication technology: tables and figures

Data sources

Eurostat's survey on the use of ICT in households and by individuals and survey on ICT usage and e-commerce in enterprises are separate, annual surveys. The enterprise survey generally covers enterprises with at least 10 persons employed; the activity coverage excludes financial and insurance activities (NACE Rev. 2 Section K). While these surveys initially concentrated on access and connectivity issues, their scope has subsequently been extended to cover a range of subjects, for example, e-government, social media or e-commerce. The enlargement countries carry out ICT surveys according to the same specifications as those used by EU Member States. Within the European Statistical System (ESS), these two surveys are based on two methodological manuals: one for enterprise statistics and one for statistics related to households and individuals, both of which are updated annually. The definitions laid down in these manuals form the basis for the methodology the enlargement countries are requested to follow.

The enlargement countries provide data directly to Eurostat's unit responsible for innovation and digitalisation, under Eurostat's regular collection of ICT data. These statistics are available free of charge on Eurostat's website.

While basic principles and institutional frameworks for producing statistics are already in place, the enlargement countries are expected to increase the volume and quality of their data progressively, and to transmit these data to Eurostat in the context of the EU enlargement process. ESS standards in the field of statistics require the existence of a statistical infrastructure based on principles such as professional independence, impartiality, relevance, confidentiality of individual data and easy access to official statistics; they cover methodology, classifications and standards for production.

Eurostat has the responsibility to ensure that statistical production of the enlargement countries complies with the EU acquis in the field of statistics. To do so, Eurostat supports the national statistical offices and other producers of official statistics through a range of initiatives, such as pilot surveys, training courses, traineeships, study visits, workshops and seminars, and participation in meetings within the ESS. The ultimate goal is the provision of harmonised, high-quality data that conforms to European and international standards.

Context

Information and communication technologies (ICTs) affect people's everyday lives in many ways, both at work and in the home, for example, through communications with friends and colleagues or buying and ordering goods online. The development and expansion of the information society is regarded as critical to improve the competitiveness of the EU, while EU policymakers also seek to regulate specific areas, such as e-commerce or the protection of an individual's privacy when using such technologies.

In December 2022, European Parliament and Council Decision (EU) 2022/2481 established the Digital Decade Policy Programme 2030. This programme aims to encompass social, moral and economic impacts of digital technologies, to promote and drive the digital transformation toward a sustainable and inclusive path in order to reach a fair economy and investment-oriented approach with the twin objectives of promoting the uptake of artificial intelligence and addressing the risks associated with certain uses of this new technology.

Statisticians are well aware of the challenges posed by rapid technological change in areas related to the internet and other new applications of ICTs. As such, there has been a considerable degree of development in this area, with statistical tools being adapted to satisfy new demands for data. Indeed, statistics within this domain are reassessed on an annual basis, in order to meet user needs and reflect the rapid pace of technological change.

From 2014 to 2022, the Digital Economy and Society Index (DESI) summarised indicators on Europe’s digital performance and tracked the progress of EU countries. From 2023, the interactive DESI dashboard for the Digital Decade visualises Europe’s performance across the four dimensions of the Digital Decade Policy Programme 2030: digital skills, digital infrastructure, digitalisation of business and digitalisation of public services. DESI is managed by Directorate-General Communications Networks, Content and Technology (DG CONNECT); some of the indicators that form part of DESI are based on Eurostat's Community surveys on ICT usage.

Information concerning the current statistical legislation on ICT statistics can be found under 'Legislation' in the dedicated section on 'Digital economy and society' on Eurostat's website.

Additional information on statistical cooperation with the enlargement countries is provided in the Statistics explained background article Enlargement policy and statistical cooperation.

Footnotes

This designation is without prejudice to positions on status, and is in line with UNSCR 1244/1999 and the ICJ Opinion on the Kosovo Declaration of Independence. ↑