Culture statistics - international trade in cultural goods

Data extracted in July 2024.

Planned article update: November 2025.

Highlights

In 2023, cultural goods valued at €26 billion were exported outside the EU.

In 2023, video game consoles represented the largest share of total cultural imports value from non-EU countries (28.5%), while jewellery led in exports (57.8%).

In 2023, in most EU countries (23), at least half of the total exports value of cultural goods came from trade with other EU countries.

This article is part of the Culture statistics online publication. Trade statistics for cultural goods provide information on the value of international exchanges of these goods (based on current prices when data were captured) and show the proportion of cultural trade relative to all EU international trade. The analysis looks mainly at data from 2023 and presents:

export and import values in absolute and relative terms (in euro million and as a share of total trade respectively);
extra-EU and intra-EU trade;
the type of goods traded;
the EU's main trading partners;
a 5 year comparison to account for mid-term tendencies in the sector.

Statistics on international trade in cultural goods are based on data extracted from Comext, Eurostat's database on international trade in goods.

Cultural trade in 2023 at EU and national level

This article analyses statistics on international trade in cultural goods for the EU, 5 candidate countries (Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Serbia and Türkiye) and 1 potential candidate (Kosovo*).

*This designation is without prejudice to positions on status, and is in line with UNSCR 1244/1999 and the ICJ Opinion on the Kosovo Declaration of Independence.

Trade partners for the EU and Member States

The aggregated data for the EU concern extra-EU trade, presenting the EU as a single entity and excluding intra-EU trade (between the Member States). By contrast, trade data at national level for individual EU countries concern both intra-EU and extra-EU trade.

Cultural goods in international trade, are those using 'creation' or 'artistic expression' in the production process, the purpose of which is to transmit aesthetic, symbolic or artistic values, or which are considered to enable artistic expression or can be recognised as designed primarily to provide access to cultural content.

Goods meeting those criteria are identified in 12 groups of cultural products – 'antiques', 'works of art', 'craft articles', 'jewellery', 'books', 'newspapers, journals and periodicals', 'maps', 'architectural plans and drawings', 'photographic plates and films', 'recorded media', 'video game consoles', and 'musical instruments' (see Figure 10). These groups are very diverse; some contain products for mass consumption ('books', 'newspapers') and others only specialised items ('architectural plans and drawings', 'photographic plates and films'). The statistics do not cover the large-scale manufactured products that partially give access to cultural content (for example, TV sets, cameras, smartphones, or tablets). Extra-EU trade in cultural goods – 2018 and 2023 overview

When comparing 2023 with 2018, the value of extra-EU exports of cultural goods increased by 25.8% (from €20.7 billion in 2018 to €26.0 billion in 2023), and the value of extra-EU imports increased by 42.7% (from €17.3 billion in 2018 to €24.7 billion in 2023). The trade balance for cultural goods declined from €3.4 billion in 2018 to €1.3 billion in 2023. The ratio of exports to imports – the 'cover ratio' – fell from 1.20 in 2018 to 1.05 in 2023(see Table 1).

'Jewellery' (50.3%), 'works of art' (11.7%), 'recorded media' (9.7%) and 'books' (9.6%) contributed the most to the value of extra-EU cultural goods exports in 2018. In 2023, 'jewellery' dominated even more with a 57.8% share in the extra-EU exports of cultural goods, followed by 'works of art' (12.1%), 'books' (6.7%) and 'recorded media' (6.2%).

Concerning extra-EU imports of cultural goods, in 2018, the largest contributions were from 'jewellery' (34.8%), 'video games consoles' (24.3%), 'books' (9.5%) and 'works of art' (9.0%). In 2023, the largest contribution to the value of total cultural goods imports were products from the 'video games consoles' (28.5%), 'jewellery' (27.6%), and 'works of art' (19.7%) categories.

The increase in the total value of cultural goods exports between 2018 and 2023 was driven by exports of 'jewellery' (+€4.6 billion), 'works of art' (+€0.7 billion) and 'antiques' (+€0.6 billion). However, this increase was counterbalanced by a decrease in the value of exports of 'recorded media' (-€0.4 billion), as well as by declines in the 'books' category (-€0.2 billion) and the 'newspapers, journals and periodicals' (also down by €0.2 billion). When comparing 2023 with 2018, the main contributors to the increase in the total value of cultural goods imports were products from the 'works of art' (+€3.3 billion) and 'video game consoles' categories (+€2.8 billion).

Table 1: Extra-EU trade in cultural goods, EU, 2018 and 2023
Source: Eurostat (cult_trd_prd)

International trade in cultural goods continued its growth after the 2020 COVID-19 crisis

The changes in the value of exports and imports of international trade in cultural goods should be placed in a broader time context. With an unprecedented collapse in the value of extra-EU exports and imports in 2020, the COVID-19 crisis had a visible impact on international trade in cultural goods.

Figure 1 shows the evolution of extra-EU trade in goods over the years. The stable growth in value of the extra-EU trade in cultural goods (solid lines) between 2015 and 2019 collapsed in 2020. The chart shows that imports and exports of cultural goods followed a different pattern during the crisis. In 2020, imports of cultural goods were less impacted than total imports. By contrast, exports of cultural goods saw a sharper decline compared with total exports. The values of imports and exports rebounded in 2021, maintaining a stable upward trend in 2022. In 2023, the value of cultural goods trade continued to grow, with exports growing faster than imports.

In 2023, cultural goods corresponded to around 1% of the overall EU's value of (extra-EU) exports and imports in total goods. The value of extra-EU exports in cultural goods was €26.0 billion, and the value of imports was €24.7 billion.

Figure 1: Evolution of extra-EU imports and exports in cultural goods and in total goods, EU, 2011-2023
(index, 2011=100)
Source: Eurostat (cult_trd_prd) and (ext_lt_introEU27_2020)

International trade in cultural goods in the EU countries

As shown in Table 2, the value of cultural goods exports increased in 19 of the 27 EU countries between 2018 and 2023. The highest increase was registered in Ireland, with a value in 2023 that was 3.7 times higher than 5 years before. The absolute value of exports increased the most in Italy (+€4.4 billion), the Netherlands (+€2.9 billion), and France (+€2.2 billion). It decreased the most in Germany (-€0.8 billion) and Poland (-€0.6 billion).

Compared with 2018, the value of cultural goods imports increased in 24 EU countries. The largest increases in absolute terms were recorded in the Netherlands (+€3.4 billion) and Austria (+€2.5 billion). Decreases in the value of cultural goods imports were observed mainly in Poland (-€0.3 billion) and Czechia (-€0.1 billion). In 2023, only 9 EU countries had a positive trade balance in cultural goods. The largest positive trade balance in cultural goods was in Italy (+€8.2 billion), followed by France (+€1.0 billion). Italy was the trade balance leader in both years. By contrast, in 2023, the largest trade deficit in cultural goods was recorded in Austria (-€3.1 billion).

Table 2: International trade in cultural goods, 2018 and 2023
Source: Eurostat (cult_trd_prd)

Contribution of cultural trade to overall exports

In 2023, the share of exports of cultural goods in total exports was higher than the EU average (1.0%) in only 2 EU countries (based on extra-EU and intra-EU trade): Italy (2.0%) and France (1.7%). Cultural goods accounted for a relatively low share of total exports in Hungary and Finland (0.1% each), as well as in Bulgaria and Cyprus (0.2% each).

Looking at the 5 year perspective, between 2018 and 2023 the contribution of cultural goods to total exports increased at least 0.1 percentage points in 5 EU countries, with the biggest relative increase in Ireland (up from 0.3% to 0.9%). In 18 EU countries, the share of cultural goods in total exports decreased, with the largest decline in Poland (down from 1.6% to 0.8%) (see Figure 2).

Figure 2: Exports of cultural goods as a share of total exports, 2018 and 2023
(%)
Source: Eurostat (cult_trd_prd)

Contribution of cultural trade to overall imports

In the EU, cultural goods accounted for 1.0% of total (extra-EU) imports in 2023, compared with 0.9% in 2018 (see Figure 3). The increase of the share of cultural goods imports in total imports could be attributed, at least partially, to sharp decrease in total imports at EU level, as shown in Figure 1.

In 10 EU countries, the share of cultural goods in total imports was higher in 2023 than in 2018. The contribution of cultural goods to total imports increased most notably in Austria (up from 1.1% to 2.1%). The highest share of cultural goods in total imports in 2023 was in Austria (2.1%), followed by France (1.3%), Ireland (1.2%) and Luxembourg (1.1%). The share of cultural goods in total imports was the lowest in Lithuania, Hungary and Slovenia (0.2% each).

Figure 3: Imports of cultural goods as a share of total imports, 2018 and 2023
(%)
Source: Eurostat (cult_trd_prd)

Intra-EU and extra-EU trade

Exports

The ratio between intra-EU and extra-EU trade shows the diversity of a country's trade patterns and may reflect historical ties and geographical location. Care should be taken when interpreting the size of intra-EU trade relative to extra-EU trade, in particular because of significant quasi-transit trade in some EU countries (for example, the Netherlands).^[1]

In 2023, the estimated total value of cultural goods exported by EU countries (both within and outside the EU) was €52.6 billion. Cultural products accounting for 50.6 % of this value were destined to other EU countries, and 49.4 % were destined to non-EU countries (see Figure 4). In 23 EU countries, at least half of the total export value of cultural goods came from trade with other EU countries.

In several cases, this share was considerably higher, exceeding 80% in the Netherlands, Czechia, Cyprus, Romania, Poland, and even surpassing 90% in Slovakia (95.7%). By contrast, the value of extra-EU exports exceeded the value of intra-EU exports in Sweden, France, Italy, and, most notably, Ireland.

Figure 4: Share of extra-EU and intra-EU trade in all exports of cultural goods, 2023
(%)
Source: Eurostat (cult_trd_prd)

Imports

The total estimated value of cultural goods imported by the EU countries in 2023 was €49.2 billion. Of this, 49.8% came from imports within the EU, while 50.2% originated from non-EU countries (see Figure 5). In 22 EU countries, more than 50% of all imports of cultural goods were from other EU countries. This share reached 92.8% in Slovakia, and at least 80% in Romania, Croatia, Portugal and Poland.

By contrast, more than 50% of imports of cultural goods were from outside the EU in the Netherlands (86.6%), Austria (63.1%), Malta (53.3%), Ireland (52.9%) and France (51.8%).

Figure 5: Share of extra-EU and intra-EU trade in all imports of cultural goods, 2023
(%)
Source: Eurostat (cult_trd_prd)

Trade in cultural goods by product

Exports of cultural goods by categories

In 2023, jewellery made of precious metals and stones accounted for more than half of extra-EU exports total value of cultural goods. Over three-quarters of extra-EU exports value of cultural goods were in 3 main categories: 'jewellery' (57.8%), 'works of art' (12.1%) and 'books' (6.7%) (see Table 3).

The level of trade in cultural goods is affected by many factors, including the characteristics of cultural products that make them mass-market or niche products, technological innovations driving new consumption patterns, abilities among countries in producing and processing these goods, etc.

The categories of cultural products and the EU countries where these categories are the leading domains of the total export of cultural goods are listed below.

'Jewellery' accounted for more than half of the total value of cultural goods exports in Italy (83.0%), Cyprus (73.4%), Ireland (72.9%), France (61.7%) and Luxembourg (56.2%). In a further 6 EU countries (Romania, Bulgaria, Belgium, Greece, Denmark and Germany), 'jewellery' remained the main category of cultural goods but did not exceed 50% of total cultural goods exports value.
Books were the main cultural goods exported by 6 EU countries – accounting for more than half of total exports value from Latvia (66.7%), Slovenia (55.8%) and Lithuania (50.5%) – followed by Hungary, Malta and Croatia.
The 'recorded media' category amounted to the highest share of total cultural goods export value in 3 EU countries – Czechia and Austria (45.5% each), and Finland (41.1%).
The 'video game consoles' category had high shares in 5 EU countries, accounting for more than half of the total cultural goods exports value in the Netherlands (59.3%), followed by Slovakia, Sweden, Poland and Spain.
Craft articles (handmade fabrics and ornamental articles) were the most exported (in terms of value) type of cultural goods from Portugal (39.8%).
Products in the 'newspapers, journals and periodicals' category were the most common cultural goods (in terms of value) exported from Estonia (31.7%).

Table 3: Exports of cultural goods by product category, 2023
Source: Eurostat (cult_trd_prd)

Imports of cultural goods by categories

In 2023, three categories accounted for three-quarters of the total imports value of cultural goods into the EU from non-EU countries: 'video game consoles' (28.5%), 'jewellery' (27.6%) and 'works of art' (19.7%) – see Table 4.

Looking at imports in individual EU countries (and therefore taking account of both intra-EU imports and extra-EU imports):

In 9 countries, the value of 'video game consoles' imports exceeded that of any other type of cultural good. In the Netherlands, the only country where video game consoles represented more than half of the total value of cultural goods imports, this category accounted for 71.2% (see footnote 1);
In 13 countries, 'jewellery' had the highest share in the total value of cultural goods imports, exceeding half of the total value of cultural goods imports in both Luxembourg (54.4%) and Italy (52.6%).
In 2 countries, 'works of art' were the most common type of cultural import: in Austria, where imports in this category accounted for 61.7% of total cultural goods imports, valued at € 2.7 billion (representing over half of all 'works of art' imports in the EU in 2023), and in Belgium (23.0%).
'Craft' accounted for the highest share of total cultural goods imports value in Bulgaria (34.5%), while 'books' were predominant in Slovenia (33.7%), and 'recorded media' in Czechia (25.9%).

Table 4: Imports of cultural goods by product category, 2023
Source: Eurostat (cult_trd_prd)

The EU's main partners for trade in cultural goods

Leading destinations for EU exports of cultural goods in 2023

The total share of cultural goods market held by the EU's 10 main export partners in cultural-goods trade increased from 78.3% in 2018 to 79.2% in 2023.

In 2023, the EU's main export markets for cultural goods were Switzerland (accounting for 22.6% of all extra-EU exports of cultural goods by value, €5.9 billion), the United States (17.8%, €4.6 billion) and the United Kingdom (10.9%, €2.8 billion). Together, they accounted for over half of all exports of cultural goods. Exports to each of the EU's other trade partners were all below 10% (see Figure 6).

Comparing 2023 with 2018, exports of cultural goods to the United States increased by €1.7 billion. This was the largest growth in the value of exports in absolute terms to a single partner.

In the observed period, the absolute value of cultural goods exports decreased the most in trading with the United Kingdom (by €0.8 billion).

Figure 6: 2023 main partners for extra-EU exports of cultural goods, EU, 2018 and 2023
(%)
Source: Eurostat (cult_trd_prt)

Leading countries of origin for cultural goods imported into the EU in 2023

The total share of cultural goods market held by the EU's 10 main import partners in cultural-goods trade decreased from 93.1% in 2018 to 89.9% in 2023 (see Figure 7).

In 2023, almost a third of imports of cultural goods to the EU (31.6%) came from China. 3 countries – China, Switzerland (14.3%), and the United States (11.1%) accounted for more than half of all cultural goods imports to the EU.

Comparing imports of cultural goods from the EU's main partners between 2018 and 2023, the most significant increase concerned China (from €4.5 billion in 2018 to €7.8 billion in 2023). Conversely, the most significant decreases in cultural goods imports values to the EU concerned Switzerland (from €3.7 billion to €3.5 billion) and the United Kingdom (from €2.7 billion to €2.5 billion).

Figure 7: 2023 main partners for extra EU imports of cultural goods, EU, 2018 and 2023
(%)
Source: Eurostat (cult_trd_prt)

Extra-EU cultural goods' trade flows by category of product

Articles of jewellery were the most exported products to Switzerland and the United States

As shown in Figure 8, in 2023, articles of jewellery were the most exported cultural products outside the EU. In terms of value, Switzerland was the top extra-EU country to which these products were directed, followed by the United States and the United Arab Emirates. With a value of more than €15.0 billion, articles of jewellery covered more than half of the total extra-EU exports of cultural goods.

Works of art exported outside the EU, with a total value of €3.1 billion, had as main destinations the United States, Switzerland and the United Kingdom.

As shown in the chart, extra-EU trade of cultural products such as books, musical instruments or crafts, had a more widely distributed pattern among the partner countries. These categories of products had significant shares of exports also towards countries that were not among the EU's 10 main partners for trade in cultural goods.

Figure 8: Value of extra-EU exports of cultural goods by main partner and by category, EU, 2023 (€ million)
Source: Eurostat (cult_trd_prt)

Imports

Figure 9 shows the trade relations with the top 10 extra-EU partners by category of imported product. In 2023, video game consoles emerged for the first time as the leading category in terms of value among all cultural goods imported from outside the EU. The diagram clearly shows the dominance of video game consoles imports from China, which accounted for 81.0% of the import value within this category.

In addition to video game consoles imports, China was a leading partner for the EU's imports of craft articles and musical instruments, accounting for 40.3% and 34.8% of the import values in these categories, respectively. Leading import partners for cultural goods can be identified in other categories where at least one-third of the import value came from a single country. These include the United States for 'photographic plates and films' imports (88.0%), Switzerland for 'jewellery' (37.2%), and the United Kingdom for 'books' (33.3%).

Furthermore, some EU trade partners were notable for specific categories of imported products. For instance, 'jewellery' accounted for over half of the total value of cultural goods imports from Thailand (97.0%), India (76.4%), Türkiye (73.6%), and Switzerland (72.0%). 'Works of art' constituted the majority of total cultural goods imports from Liechtenstein (89.6%) and Hong Kong (62.3%), while 'video game consoles' represented significant shares of the total cultural goods import value from China (73.1%) and Japan (64.6%).

Figure 9: Value of extra-EU imports of cultural goods by main partner and by category, EU, 2023 (€ million)
Source: Eurostat (cult_trd_prt)

Source data for tables and graphs

International trade in cultural goods: tables and figures

Data sources

International trade statistics are stored in Comext, Eurostat's database for international trade in goods. Comext contains statistics on goods traded between EU Member States (intra-EU trade) and goods traded by EU Member States with non-EU countries (extra-EU trade). The trade values for other political or geographical entities, such as the EFTA and candidate countries are also collected. The Comext database is built around 6 main dimensions:

reporter (country declaring commercial transactions);
partner (trade partners of the declaring country – all countries of the world);
flow (exports and imports);
product (items by HS, CN or SITC, BEC and CPA depending on the dataset);
time (annual and monthly data);
type of indicator (the value or quantity of traded products).

Based on the number of dimensions available in the Comext database, the following indicators are compiled for imports and exports of cultural goods:

value of trade in thousands of euros (THS_EUR);
percentage of country's total trade (PC_TOT);
percentage of total EU trade (PC_EU27_2020);
percentage of total cultural trade – at country and EU level (PC).

The data are compiled for the following trade partners:

intra-EU;
extra-EU;
world (intra-EU and extra-EU);
main extra-EU trading partners.

Confidentiality can apply to the product code and/or the partner country. Information about a product or partner may be considered commercially sensitive by the provider of the statistical information for the trade value. When confidentiality is granted, data are hidden at the detailed level, which means that the trade is not allocated to the real product code and/or the real partner. Due to this procedure, statistical information disseminated at the detailed level may underestimate the real trade value.

Unit of measure

Trade values are expressed in millions (106) of euros. They correspond to the statistical value, i.e. the amount which would be invoiced in the case of sale or purchase at the national border of the reporting country. It is called an FOB value (free on board) for exports and a CIF value (cost, insurance, freight) for imports.

Identification of cultural goods

The ESSnet-Culture final report (2012) created a framework for culture statistics based on cultural activities, which relate to the intersection between 10 cultural domains and 6 economic functions. Trade is an important aspect of culture statistics and 1 of the 6 economic functions (together with creation, production/publishing, preservation, education, and management/regulation).

Eurostat analysed the 10 cultural domains from a product perspective to produce a list of internationally traded cultural goods. Initially, the analysis focused on artistic creation, with the goal of covering products that convey and encompass symbolic, aesthetic, artistic and spiritual values (for example, works of art or crafts). The scope was later extended to various products that did not meet the criteria for artistic creation, but were considered to enable artistic expression or access to cultural content (for example, musical instruments, CDs, DVDs and Blu-ray discs). Cultural equipment in a wider sense (for example, televisions, CD players, and cameras) was excluded.

Based on these criteria, cultural goods and products were identified in 7 domains (see Figure 8). The initial list of cultural goods (proposed in 2015) was revised in 2016 to better align the EU's methodological framework with that proposed by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO). As a result, Eurostat's culture statistics working group agreed to add jewellery (of precious and semi-precious metals and stones), some handmade ornamental articles and some goods with audiovisual content to the list of cultural goods.

More recently, the list underwent another revision to take into account changes brought about by a revision of the CN classification in 2017. In particular, this revision affected the codes related to support for audiovisual content by removing the distinction between support for sound (music) and for sound and vision (film, video and video games). Now, 1 grouping is presented for the support of all audiovisual content (available on physical copies) - music, films, videos and video games - under the broad heading of recorded media (covering the previous headings for music in manuscript, gramophone records, recorded magnetic tapes and optical media (CDs), and audiovisual and interactive media). Video game consoles (previously under audiovisual and interactive media) were split from the other codes and are now a separate category.

Statistics on international trade in cultural goods provide aggregated data on cultural goods traded between Member States (intra-EU trade) and between the EU and non-member countries (extra-EU trade).

A detailed list of the CN codes used to create the aggregates of cultural goods can be found in metadata on international trade in cultural goods (Annex 2).

Figure 10: Cultural goods according to cultural domains
Source: Eurostat (Guide to Eurostat culture statistics — 2018 edition)

The impact of quasi-transit (the 'Rotterdam effect')

An EU country's trade flows may be overvalued because of quasi-transit trade. A country's trade balance is not affected because quasi-transit trade should increase by the same amount as intra- and extra-EU trade flows:

extra-EU imports are followed by dispatches to another EU country, and arrivals from a Member State are then followed by extra-EU exports to the final destination).

Quasi-transit trade mainly affects EU countries with large ports that trade goods at the EU's external border. This phenomenon is particularly prominent in the Netherlands (hence it is known as the 'Rotterdam effect') and Belgium. For example (and in line with EU rules), the Netherlands records goods arriving in Dutch ports that are destined for other EU countries as extra-EU imports. Then when goods are released for free circulation, the goods are recorded as intra-EU dispatches (exports) from the Netherlands to other EU countries.

Quasi-transit trade is known to affect imports more than exports. In some cases, customs clearance does not occur in the original Member State from which the exports originate but rather the Member State from which the goods leave the EU.

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Context

Culture is one of Europe's greatest assets: it is a source of values, identity and a sense of belonging. It also contributes to wellbeing, social cohesion and inclusion. The cultural and creative sectors provide a stimulus for economic growth, job creation and international trade.

In accordance with Article 167 of the Treaty of Lisbon, the EU is obliged to 'contribute to the flowering of the cultures of the Member States, while respecting their national and regional diversity and at the same time bringing the common heritage to the fore'.

The EU supports these objectives through the Creative Europe programme and a number of policy actions set out in the work plan for culture (2023-2026). The work plan, adopted by EU culture ministers in December 2022, sets out 4 main priorities for European cooperation in cultural policymaking: (i) artists and cultural professionals: empowering the cultural and creative sectors; (ii) culture for the people: enhancing cultural participation and the role of culture in society; (iii) culture for the planet: unleashing the power of culture; (iv) culture for co-creative partnerships: strengthening the cultural dimension of EU external relations.

The production of reliable, comparable and up-to-date cultural statistics, which provide a basis for sound cultural policymaking, is a cross-sectoral priority for the Commission. Eurostat compiles culture statistics from several different data collections to provide policymakers and other users of statistics with information on the main developments in the field of culture, covering issues such as education, employment, business, international trade, participation patterns and consumption patterns.

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Notes

↑ The high share recorded in the Netherlands may be attributed in part to the impact of quasi-transit of goods, in other words, the so-called 'Rotterdam effect' (see the Data sources section for more details).

Explore further

Database

Culture (cult), see:

International trade in cultural goods (cult_trd_go)

Intra and extra-EU trade in cultural goods by product (cult_trd_prd)

Intra and extra-EU trade in cultural goods by product and partner (cult_trd_prt)

Thematic section

Culture statistics

Publications

Methodology

International trade in cultural goods (ESMS metadata file — cult_trd_go_esms)
International trade in goods (ESMS metadata file — ext_go_agg_esms)

External links

Legislation

European legislation applicable to statistics relating to trade in goods

[1] The high share recorded in the Netherlands may be attributed in part to the impact of quasi-transit of goods, in other words, the so-called 'Rotterdam effect' (see the Data sources section for more details).

[1]