Statistics Explained

Regional yearbook introduction

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Planned article update: September 2024.

Highlights

Regional statistics offer subnational comparisons of data. For example, information for the smallest EU Member States (such as Luxembourg or Malta) can be compared with regions in larger Member States.

In May 2023, the European Year of Skills was launched: it provides a focus for investment in professional education and upskilling, to ensure the EU has the necessary skills to contribute towards sustainable growth, more innovation and improved competitiveness.

Eurostat, the statistical office of the European Union (EU), collects, compiles and publishes statistics for the EU and euro area, as well as national, regional and other subnational data, primarily for the EU Member States, but also for the EFTA and candidate countries.

This edition of the Eurostat regional yearbook focuses on the European Year of Skills initiative. Having a workforce with the skills that are in demand contributes to sustainable growth, leads to more innovation and improves business competitiveness. These aspects are considered key to ensuring the economic recovery from the COVID-19 crisis and that the green and digital transitions are socially fair and just. The European Year of Skills puts skills centre-stage: helping people get the right skills for quality jobs and helping business, in particular small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), address skills shortages. The European Year of Skills should assist the EU in reaching two of its social targets for 2030, namely that at least 60 % of adults should be in training and at least 78 % in employment. Several chapters in this edition of the Eurostat regional yearbook have a special focus highlighting issues in relation to skills. The impact of Russian military aggression against Ukraine and related sanctions, alongside population movements, disruptions to energy markets and global food security, as well as related cost-of-living price increases may be seen in the analyses of 2022 data presented within several chapters of the Eurostat regional yearbook. The COVID-19 crisis affected the EU and the wider world profoundly: the initial impact and subsequent signs of a recovery from the pandemic are presented for several chapters (where the latest regional information available is for 2020 and/or 2021).

Full article

European statistics

Subnational statistics

EU Member States are often compared with each other in statistical presentations, but in practice it can be difficult to compare small and large countries. For example, Malta had 521 000 inhabitants on 1 January 2022 and Luxembourg had 645 000 inhabitants, while the most populous EU Member State, Germany, had 83.2 million inhabitants. Furthermore, there are considerable differences between Member States as regards their territorial composition. For example, Ireland, Finland and Sweden are generally rural and sparsely-populated, whereas the Benelux countries and Malta are characterised by much higher levels of population density. Equally, within individual Member States there can be great diversity: for example, the densely-populated, urbanised areas of Nordrhein-Westfalen in the west of Germany may be contrasted with the sparsely-populated, largely rural, north-eastern region of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern.

Therefore, analysing data at a subnational or regional level is often more meaningful as it may highlight disparities within EU Member States, for example an east-west divide in Germany or a north-south divide in Italy. Furthermore, these analyses can reveal differences in patterns of economic development. Germany and Poland have largely polycentric patterns of (economic) development with several, relatively large cities spread across their territory. By contrast, France and Romania are examples of a more monocentric pattern of development, with their activity more concentrated in and around their respective capitals.

Over the past few years, Eurostat has expanded the range of statistics that it provides beyond national and regional information to cover other territorial typologies, addressing the growing needs of policymakers, particularly within the context of cohesion and territorial developments. These changes are based on harmonising and integrating various typologies under two broad headings: those linked to regional statistics and those linked to statistics for local administrative units (LAU or municipalities). With this in mind, a process of legislative consolidation was accomplished by Regulation (EU) 2017/2391 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 12 December 2017 as regards the territorial typologies (Tercet). This regulation establishes a common statistical classification of territorial units to enable the collection, compilation and dissemination of European statistics at different territorial levels.

Statistics on regions – the NUTS classification

At the heart of regional statistics is NUTS – the EU’s classification of territorial units for statistics. This regional classification for EU Member States is based on a hierarchy of regions and subdivides each Member State into regions that are classified according to NUTS levels 1, 2 and 3 (from larger to smaller areas). Some EU Member States have a relatively small population and/or area and may therefore not be subdivided at some (or even all) of the different levels of the NUTS classification. For example, Estonia, Cyprus, Latvia, Luxembourg and Malta are each composed of a single NUTS level 2 region according to the 2021 version of the NUTS classification, which is the basis for classifying regional information in this edition of the Eurostat regional yearbook.

For non-EU countries – EFTA and candidate countries – the concept of ‘statistical regions’ is used instead of NUTS. This applies the same principles as those used in the establishment of the NUTS classification but is based on bilateral agreements between the countries concerned and Eurostat (rather than having any legislative basis).

Table 1 provides an overview of the number of regions for each of the EU Member States and non-EU countries that are covered in the Eurostat regional yearbook.

Table 1: Number of NUTS 2021 regions and statistical regions
Source: Eurostat

Most of the regional statistics shown in the Eurostat regional yearbook are for NUTS level 2 regions. However, subject to data availability, some maps and figures are shown for either NUTS level 1 regions (more aggregated geographical information) or NUTS level 3 regions (the most detailed level of regional information). The latter are only available for a limited selection of indicators that cover topics such as demography, economic accounts, tourism and environmental statistics.

There may also be specific cases (normally related to the limits of data availability) where particular regions are presented using a different NUTS level compared with the remainder of the regions in the same map or figure; these cases are documented in footnotes and are included to improve data coverage. Where little or no regional data exist for a particular EU Member State, national data have been used; these exceptions are also documented in footnotes. Furthermore, the source data (online data codes) are adapted so as to reflect any additional national data tables that may have been used. Where maps and/or figures are based on different territorial levels, any counts of regions that are provided in the accompanying commentaries are systematically based on the different territorial levels for which data are available in each country.

The NUTS regulation and classification

The NUTS classification is defined in Regulation (EC) No 1059/2003 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 26 May 2003 on the establishment of a common classification of territorial units for statistics (NUTS), which has to be amended by a European Commission regulation each time the classification is updated (when a new version of the NUTS is needed). The NUTS regulation specifies that there should be a minimum period of three years stability during which time the classification should not be changed; exceptions are made when the accession (or departure) of an EU Member State occurs. Since 2003, the NUTS classification has been amended several times, due to:

  • regular amendments;
  • changes in the membership of the EU; and
  • changes to the territorial boundaries of existing Member States (for example, the inclusion of data for the French region of Mayotte).

The sixth amendment of the NUTS classification (Commission Delegated Regulation (EU) No 2019/1755) was adopted in August 2019 and applies to any data transmitted to Eurostat from 1 January 2021 onwards. This version of NUTS – NUTS 2021 – is the basis for classifying regional statistics as used in the 2023 edition of the Eurostat regional yearbook. It should be noted that some older data presented in this publication may have been collected using a previous version of NUTS, although these statistics have (where possible) been recoded to NUTS 2021. As a consequence, data are sometimes not available for a small number of regions where a simple recoding or aggregation of data from previous versions of NUTS was not possible (for example due to changes in boundaries).

The main principles of the NUTS classification

Principle 1: NUTS favours administrative divisions. If available, administrative structures are used for the different NUTS levels. In those EU Member States where there is no administrative layer corresponding to a particular level of NUTS, so-called non-administrative regions are created by aggregating smaller administrative regions.

Principle 2: the NUTS regulation defines minimum and maximum population thresholds for the size of NUTS regions (see Table 2) to ensure a basic degree of comparability. Different rules apply to administrative and non-administrative layers. Deviations from these thresholds are only possible when particular geographical, socioeconomic, historical, cultural or environmental circumstances exist.

Table 2: Population size constraints for NUTS 2021 regions
(number of inhabitants)
Source: Eurostat

Other territorial typologies

Previous editions of the Eurostat regional yearbook have shown a range of other territorial typologies to extend subnational analyses to topics such as cities and commuting zones, or statistics compiled by degree of urbanisation. The latter is a classification based on three types of area, which are defined using a population grid of 1 km² cells in combination with population thresholds to identify cities (densely-populated areas), towns and suburbs (intermediate density areas) and rural areas (thinly-populated areas). While statistics such as these remain highly relevant for policy debate in the EU and more generally at a global level, an editorial decision was taken when compiling this edition of the Eurostat regional yearbook to concentrate on regional statistics. Readers who are interested in alternative analyses of subnational statistics may refer to two sister publications released by Eurostat at the start of 2023:

European policy background

European policymaking is inherently multidimensional: on the one hand, it has to encompass a broad framework providing objectives for the EU as a whole, while on the other it needs to acknowledge the often specific needs of national and subnational territories. Recent challenges such as the global financial and economic crisis, security concerns from terror attacks, the refugee crisis, the departure of the United Kingdom from the EU (Brexit), the COVID-19 crisis, the impact of Russian military aggression against Ukraine, or the cost-of-living crisis provide just a few examples of the complex nature of delivering EU-wide, national, regional and local solutions in a coherent manner.

One of the EU’s main challenges is to ensure that policy developments are scrutinised to ensure they take account of the considerable geographical diversity within the EU. The territorial dimension of EU policy is increasingly recognised, as job creation and the transition towards a green and digital economy depend on making the best use of all assets, while ensuring that common resources are used in a coordinated and sustainable way. This section provides an overview of some of the main policy initiatives that have a territorial impact across the EU.

Cohesion policy

What is cohesion policy?

EU cohesion policy is designed to promote harmonious development within the EU by strengthening economic, social and territorial cohesion. In doing so it promotes job creation, business competitiveness, economic growth, social inclusion and sustainable development, thereby aiming to improve the overall quality of life.

During the period 2021–2027, the framework for regional development and cohesion policy in the EU focuses on providing funds to the least developed regions of the EU for five key investment priorities:

  • smarter Europe, through innovation, digitalisation, economic transformation and support to SMEs;
  • a greener, carbon-free Europe, implementing the Paris Agreement and investing in energy transition, renewables and the fight against climate change;
  • a more connected Europe, with strategic transport and digital networks;
  • a more social Europe, delivering on the European Pillar of Social Rights and supporting quality employment, education, skills, social inclusion and equal access to healthcare;
  • a Europe closer to citizens, by supporting locally-led development strategies and sustainable urban development across the EU.

Cohesion policy is delivered through a number of specific funds.

  • The European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) aims to strengthen economic, territorial and social cohesion in the EU by correcting development imbalances between its regions. It focuses on providing funding for key policy areas such as: innovation and research; the digital agenda; support for SMEs; and the low-carbon economy. The ERDF also supports cross-border and transnational cooperation, under the European Territorial Cooperation objective (Interreg).
  • The Cohesion Fund (CF) aims to reduce economic and social disparities and to promote sustainable development. Funding is directed specifically at infrastructure projects to support the development of transport, energy and digital infrastructure within trans-European networks and at energy and transport projects that display clear environmental benefits in terms of energy efficiency, the use of renewable energy, developing rail transport, supporting inter-modality, or strengthening public transport.
  • The European Social Fund Plus (ESF+) provides support for people, with a focus on improving employment and education opportunities across the EU, as well as the situation of the most vulnerable people (those at risk of poverty).
  • The Just Transition Fund (JTF) is a financial instrument within cohesion policy. It aims to support territories facing serious socioeconomic challenges arising from the transition towards climate neutrality. It is designed to facilitate the implementation of a European Green Deal, with the goal of reducing the EU’s net greenhouse gas emissions by at least 55 % by 2030 (compared with 1990 levels) and to make the EU climate-neutral by 2050.

Cohesion policy: how is the budget decided?

Overall, resources allocated to cohesion policy stem from the multiannual financial framework (MFF). Additional resources have been granted, exceptionally, under NextGenerationEU, to complete financial resources under the 2014–2020 programmes (Recovery assistance for cohesion and the territories of Europe (REACT-EU) – €50.6 billion) and under the 2021–2027 programmes, to finance – together with MFF resources – the Just Transition Fund (€10.8 billion).

Regulation (EU) No 2021/1060 of 24 June 2021 – the Common Provisions Regulation (CPR) – provides a policy framework so that shared management funds, including EU cohesion policy funds, continue to fulfil the objectives of promoting convergence and supporting the least developed parts of the EU. As the main legal basis for cohesion policy, the CPR makes it possible to address emerging economic and social challenges through greater flexibility in terms of transferring resources and extended capacity. Furthermore, through the CPR, all cohesion policy funds – the ERDF, the CF, the ESF+ and the JTF – are subject to the same rules of planning, management and monitoring.

The total budget for cohesion policy and the rules associated with its allocation are jointly decided by the Council and the European Parliament. Political agreement on the legislative package for cohesion policy for 2021–2027 was reached at the end of 2020.

A total of €378 billion has been allocated in the multiannual financial framework for regional development and cohesion between 2021 and 2027. For more information, including a breakdown of allocations by fund and by EU Member State, see: Budget allocations for EU cohesion policy 2021–2027.

The bulk of the budget for the EU’s cohesion policy is provided to regions whose development lags behind the EU average, with less developed and transition regions benefitting from 90 % of the ERDF and ESF+ resources. These concern, in particular, less developed regions predominantly located in the south or the east of the EU, the Baltic countries and several outermost regions. Funding is concentrated on these less developed regions, with the goal of reducing economic, social and territorial disparities.

For the 2021–2027 period, the allocation of funds uses a method that remains largely based on regional gross domestic product (GDP) per inhabitant. However, it also incorporates a broad range of other indicators and criteria mirroring the social, economic and environmental challenges addressed by cohesion policy, referring notably to youth unemployment, low education levels, climate change, demography or the integration of migrants.

A specific allocation method is used to distribute REACT-EU funds between EU Member States. This is different from the normal cohesion policy allocation method and takes into account levels of prosperity, the magnitude of economic contraction due to the COVID-19 crisis, and the impact of the pandemic on unemployment (including among young people).

The NUTS classification – an objective basis for the allocation of cohesion policy funding

Statistics from regional accounts are used in the allocation of cohesion policy funds, with the NUTS classification providing the basis for regional boundaries and geographic eligibility.

During the period 2021–2027, eligibility for cohesion funds is based on NUTS level 2 regions being ranked and split into three groups:

  • less developed regions, where GDP per inhabitant was less than 75 % of the EU average;
  • transition regions, where GDP per inhabitant was 75 %–100 % of the EU average; and
  • more developed regions, where GDP per inhabitant was more than 100 % of the EU average.

Cohesion policy: implementation

European structural and investment funds are attributed through shared management, a process which involves EU, national, regional and local authorities, as well as social partners and organisations from civil society (representative and community groups that are independent of government or business). Each EU Member State prepares a partnership agreement and subsequent programme(s), setting up relevant development and sectorial strategies and tailoring support in accordance with development challenges and needs. Once negotiated with the European Commission and formally adopted, national/regional managing authorities in each of the Member States implement these programmes, select operations and monitor and evaluate, together with the European Commission, their impact.

Cohesion policy: responding to crises

The COVID-19 crisis that started in 2020 prompted the European Commission to set up additional instruments under cohesion policy that can be used to quickly meet short-term needs. The pandemic caused a health crisis and rapidly changed the socioeconomic landscape. As a result, the REACT-EU package was agreed [1]. It provided an additional €50.6 billion of funding for 2021 and 2022 as part of NextGenerationEU; these funds may be used through until the end of 2023.

In parallel, several packages of measures were introduced, notably through the Coronavirus Response Investment Initiative (CRII) and the Coronavirus Response Investment Initiative Plus (CRII+), introducing further flexibility in the management of 2014–2020 programmes to mitigate the social and economic impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Two years later, in 2022, the impact of Russian military aggression against Ukraine led to a refugee crisis and an energy price shock. As a response, CARE – Cohesion’s Action for Refugees in Europe and Flexible Assistance to Territories (FAST-CARE) allowed EU Member States and regions to provide emergency support to people fleeing from Ukraine and to use cohesion policy funds with maximum flexibility to mobilise investments for housing, healthcare, translation or training for displaced people, as well as for the EU Member States receiving them.

In December 2022, the co-legislators adopted the European Commission’s proposal for REPowerEU to save energy, accelerate the production of renewable energy and diversify the EU’s energy supplies. This agreement also covers the SAFE (Supporting Affordable Energy) measures under Cohesion Policy, which will enable EU Member States to use some of their available resources under their 2014–2020 allocation to provide direct support to vulnerable families and small and medium-sized businesses to help them face increased energy costs.

Cohesion policy: integrated into broader policy goals

Regional policy and funding help deliver many of the EU’s overall policy objectives. Cohesion policy programming is embedded within overall economic policy coordination, in particular the European Semester, the digital transition, A European Green Deal and promotion of the European Pillar of Social Rights. These links between cohesion policy and broader reforms have been strengthened such that the European Commission may suspend regional funding to any EU Member State which does not comply with the EU’s economic rules.

Other policy areas that impact on subnational areas

While the EU’s regional policy can play an important role in delivering broader policy goals in a range of socioeconomic fields such as education, the labour market, energy, research and development or the environment, other EU policy areas can, in a similar way, have an impact on regions across the EU.

Urban development policy in the EU

The various dimensions of urban life – economic, social, cultural and environmental – are closely inter-related. Successful urban developments are often based on coordinated/integrated approaches that seek to balance these dimensions through a range of policy measures such as urban renewal, increasing education opportunities, preventing crime, encouraging social inclusion or environmental protection.

At the end of May 2016, a meeting of ministers responsible for urban matters was held in Amsterdam, the Netherlands. It reached an agreement on an Urban Agenda for the EU, as a multilevel governance working method, established by the Pact of Amsterdam. This agreement identifies 12 priority areas for partnerships between EU institutions, EU Member States, cities and other stakeholders. This led to 14 partnerships being created with actions on the themes of: the inclusion of migrants and refugees; air quality; urban poverty; housing; the circular economy; jobs and skills in the local economy; climate adaptation; energy transition; sustainable land use; urban mobility; digital transition; public procurement; security in public space; culture and cultural heritage. The Ljubljana Agreement and its multiannual working programme were adopted in 2021 to renew the Urban Agenda for the EU with a common goal to make it more impactful and efficient. Four new themes have been put forward for multilevel governance cooperation on: greening cities; sustainable tourism; food; cities of equality.

The urban dimension of regional policy may play an important role, notably measures to assist actions against poverty and social exclusion. In this context, the urban dimension of cohesion policy has been strengthened for the period 2021–2027, with a minimum of 8 % of the ERDF dedicated to sustainable urban development strategies, alongside a new European Urban Initiative (EUI) launched in the third quarter of 2022 with the goal of supporting cities to innovate, access knowledge and reinforce the capacity for policy development. The EUI aims to strengthen integrated and participatory approaches to sustainable urban development by facilitating and supporting cooperation and capacity building among urban actors, innovative actions, knowledge, policy development and communication. It is complemented by the URBACT programme which encourages exchanges of practices among cities and the development of solutions to urban challenges.

Rural development policy in the EU

The European Commission is implementing a Communication A long-term Vision for EU’s Rural Areas – Towards stronger, connected, resilient and prosperous rural areas by 2040. This vision comes with an EU rural action plan, designed to help rural areas meet a wide range of economic, social and environmental challenges. Under the long-term vision, the European Commission has also proposed a Rural Pact, a framework for cooperation that facilitates interaction on rural matters between public authorities and stakeholders and invites them to act on the shared goals of the EU rural vision and help rural communities and businesses reach their full potential.

After the European Agricultural Guarantee Fund (EAGF), also known as the first pillar, which provides income support and support to agricultural markets, the European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development (EAFRD) is the second pillar of the EU’s common agricultural policy (CAP). The intention of the 2014–2022 period was to help develop farming and rural areas by providing stimuli for competitive and innovative actions at the same time as seeking to protect biodiversity and the natural environment. The six priority areas of the EAFRD in the 2014–2022 period were: the promotion of knowledge transfer and innovation in agriculture, forestry and rural areas; the viability and competitiveness of all types of agriculture and support sustainable forest management; the organisation of the food production chain, animal welfare and risk management in farming; the restoration, preservation and enhancement of agricultural and forest ecosystems; the efficient use of natural resources and support the transition to a low-carbon economy; social inclusion, poverty reduction and economic development in rural areas.

At the end of 2021, a political agreement was reached on a new common agricultural policy for 2023–2027. The new legislation aims to make the CAP more environmentally friendly, result orientated and responsive to future challenges, while continuing to support EU farmers for a sustainable and competitive agricultural sector. The new policy aims to be greener, more modern and fairer and is built around 10 key objectives that are focused on social, environmental and economic sustainability. The objectives are: to ensure a fair income for farmers; to increase competitiveness; to improve the position of farmers in the food chain; climate change action; environmental care; to preserve landscapes and biodiversity; to support generational renewal; vibrant rural areas; to protect food and health quality; fostering knowledge and innovation. To realise synergies between funds active in rural areas, CAP Strategic Plans address the coordination and complementarities between the EAFRD and other EU funds, in particular CPR funds, as well as national funding.

European Committee of the Regions

The European Committee of the Regions (CoR) – which is the EU’s assembly for regional and local representatives – provides a voice for regions and cities across the EU. It was created in 1994 and is composed of 329 members who are regional presidents, mayors or elected representatives from the 27 Member States of the EU; successive treaties have broadened its role.

During the period 2020–2025, the CoR has three main priorities.

  • Bringing the EU closer to people – democracy and the future of the EU. The goal is to reinforce democracy at all levels of government, improve the way the EU works, ensure its policies and programmes meet the real needs of citizens.
  • Managing fundamental societal transformations – building resilient regional and local communities. This aims to use the United Nations (UN’s) Sustainable Development Goals to identify solutions that ensure the EU sufficiently supports local and regional authorities in responding to future emergencies and addressing the societal transformations taking place in their communities from challenges such as global pandemics as well as climate, digital and demographic transitions.
  • Promoting cohesion as a fundamental value – place-based EU policies. This aims to ensure that economic, social and territorial cohesion are fostered and respected in all EU policies that affect people and their places of living.
Cohesion alliance RYB2023.png

The #CohesionAlliance is a coalition of people who believe that the role of EU cohesion policy should be strengthened. The alliance was launched in 2017 through cooperation between leading European associations of cities and regions and the European Committee of the Regions. In October 2022, the partners of the alliance reaffirmed their commitment to reinforce cohesion policy.

European week of regions and cities RYB2023.jpg

The European Week of Regions and Cities is an annual multi-day event which allows regions and cities to showcase their capacity to encourage growth and job creation, implement EU cohesion policy, and provide evidence of the importance of the local and regional level for good governance. Organised by the CoR and the European Commission’s Directorate-General for Regional and Urban Policy, it has become a networking platform for regional and local development – which is viewed as a key event for policy practitioners – and is the biggest EU event dedicated to regional policy. The 21st European Week of Regions and Cities will be held 9–12 October 2023 under the headline of ‘Thriving Regions, Stronger Europe’ and will concentrate on six principal themes (that are closely aligned with the European Commission’s priorities):

  • regions in the post-industrial transition;
  • retaining talent for regional growth;
  • small and medium-sized urban centres driving growth;
  • breaking barriers to cross-border cooperation;
  • local energy shift for security and sustainability; and
  • promoting social innovation.

At the same time (October 2023), the European Committee of the Regions will also release its latest report providing a snapshot of the most pressing challenges faced by regions and cities across Europe (for example, how regions and cities address crises such as climate disasters or the Russian war against Ukraine, or transform over the long-term to green and digital transitions, while strengthening cohesion). For more information, please refer to this link.

The European Green Deal

To overcome the triple planetary crises of climate change, pollution and biodiversity loss, the EU has enacted a new growth strategy designed to transform the EU into a modern, resource-efficient and competitive economy, where:

  • there are no net emissions of greenhouse gases by 2050;
  • economic growth is decoupled from resource use; and
  • no person and no place is left behind.

The European Green Deal (COM(2019) 640 final) provides details of how the EU plans to develop into a sustainable economy by turning climate and environmental challenges into opportunities, and making the transition fair and inclusive for all.

Reaching these targets will require action from all regions and all sectors of the EU economy, including:

  • investing in environmentally-friendly technologies;
  • ensuring a sustainable food system;
  • supporting industry to innovate;
  • rolling out cleaner, cheaper and healthier forms of private and public transport;
  • decarbonising the energy sector;
  • ensuring buildings are more energy efficient;
  • boosting green finance; and
  • working with international partners to improve global environmental standards.

At least 30 % of the NextGenerationEU recovery package and the EU’s multiannual financial framework (2021–2027) are earmarked for tackling climate change and supporting green projects, while one tenth of annual spending under the long-term budget will contribute to halting and reversing the decline of biodiversity during 2026 and 2027. Financial support and technical assistance will be provided to help those that are most affected by the move towards the green economy. For example, assistance may be provided to regions and sectors that depend on fossil fuels or carbon-intensive processes, drawing on sources of funding from the EU budget, supplemented by national co-financing and funds from the European Investment Bank.

In response to global energy market disruption caused by the impact of Russian military aggression against Ukraine, the European Commission is implementing its REPowerEU plan. Launched in May 2022, it helps the EU to save energy, produce cleaner energy and diversify its energy supplies, thereby accelerating a transition to clean energy. As a result, the EU has already: reduced its dependency on Russian fossil fuels; saved almost 20 % of its energy consumption; introduced a gas price cap and global oil price cap; doubled the additional deployment of renewables.

A Europe fit for the digital age

Digital technology has and will continue to change people’s lives in a rapid manner. The EU’s digital strategy aims to make this transformation work for people and businesses. On 9 March 2021, the European Commission presented a vision for the EU’s digital transformation by 2030. This is based on four key points – government, skills, infrastructure and business – that are the cornerstones of the 2030 Digital Compass: the European way for the Digital Decade (COM(2021) 118 final). Some of the targets set for 2030 include:

  • having 20 million employed ICT specialists in the EU (with convergence between women and men);
  • having all households in the EU covered by a Gigabit network and all populated areas covered by 5G;
  • having the EU produce at least 20 % of the world’s output of cutting-edge and sustainable semiconductors;
  • having 75 % of EU enterprises making use of cloud computing services, big data and artificial intelligence;
  • having online provision for all key public services in the EU (those used by individuals and by enterprises);
  • to provide all Europeans with access to their medical records online;
  • to have 80 % of EU citizens using a digital ID solution.

The European Commission aims to strengthen the digital sovereignty of the EU and to set standards, rather than following those of others – with a focus on data, technology, and infrastructure. This should be achieved through a robust, joint governance structure (to identify successes and gaps) and through multi-country projects combining support from the EU’s budget, national governments and the private sector.

European Pillar of Social Rights

The European Pillar of Social Rights was jointly signed by the European Parliament, the Council and the European Commission in November 2017. It aims to take account of changing realities in the world of work, to promote the renewal of economic convergence across the EU, and to deliver new and more effective rights for citizens. The pillar is built around three main headings.

  • Equal opportunities and access to the labour market – education, training and lifelong learning; gender equality; equal opportunities; active support for employment.
  • Fair working conditions – secure and adaptable employment; wages; information about employment conditions and protection in case of dismissals; social dialogue and involvement of workers; work-life balance; healthy, safe and well-adapted work environment and data protection.
  • Social protection and inclusion – childcare and support to children; adequate protection for workers; unemployment benefits; minimum income; old age income and pensions; healthcare; inclusion of people with disabilities; long-term care; housing and assistance for the homeless; access to essential services.

These three headings cover a set of 20 key principles. To monitor progress being made in relation to strengthening the social dimension of the EU, the European Commission has established a social scoreboard of indicators. The information presented is also used for economic policy coordination as part of the European Semester. In her Political guidelines for the next European Commission 2019–2024, Ursula von der Leyen highlighted the need to reconcile ‘the social and the market in today’s modern economy’ and undertook to implement fully the European Pillar of Social Rights. In January 2021, she stated that ‘As we overcome the pandemic, as we prepare necessary reforms and as we speed up the twin green and digital transitions, I believe it is time to also adapt the social rulebook’.

On 4 March 2021, the European Commission adopted the European Pillar of Social Rights Action Plan (COM(2021) 102 final) designed to turn the 20 key principles into specific actions, while also proposing three new headline targets for the EU to reach by 2030:

  • at least 78 % of the population aged 20–64 years should be in employment by 2030;
  • every year, at least 60 % of all adults should be participating in training by 2030;
  • a reduction of at least 15 million in the number of people at risk of poverty or social exclusion should be achieved by 2030 (compared with the situation in 2019 when there were 91 million people at risk of poverty or social exclusion).

The action plan has been designed to address long-term transformations of the EU’s labour markets and economies – as shaped by climate change, digitalisation, globalisation and demographic developments – alongside more immediate challenges resulting from the COVID-19 crisis and its impact on jobs, education, the economy, welfare systems and social life.

Despite the European Pillar of Social Rights not making any specific reference to regional policy, there is an interest in analysing information at a more detailed, subnational level. Many of the indicators in the social scoreboard may be provided by Eurostat for a range of territorial typologies – principally, data by region (using the NUTS classification) or data by degree of urbanisation.

Sustainable development goals

Sustainable development has been part of the political agenda within the EU for some time. However, this subject area was given fresh impetus with the adoption of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development in September 2015 by the UN General Assembly. At the core of the agenda, there is a set of 17 sustainable development goals (SDGs). They provide a global policy framework until 2030 for stimulating action in areas of critical importance related to people, the planet, prosperity, peace and partnership.

On 22 November 2016, the European Commission adopted the Communication, Next steps for a sustainable European future – European action for sustainability (COM(2016) 739 final). It detailed the importance of the SDGs, identified EU policies that contribute to the implementation of SDGs, and announced plans for regular monitoring within an EU context. The EU has made a firm commitment towards delivering on the SDGs and on the Paris Agreement on climate change. Within this context, Eurostat has been called upon to regularly monitor progress towards the SDGs in an EU context. For this purpose it coordinates the development and release of an EU SDG indicator set and produces regular monitoring reports.

In June 2023, an EU Voluntary Review on the Implementation of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development was adopted by the EU and sent to the High-Level Political Forum on Sustainable Development of the United Nations, reaffirming the EU’s commitment to the full and timely implementation of the 2030 Agenda, through its internal and external action, as a shared global roadmap. Building on the concept of ‘whole-of-government’, the EU implements the 2030 Agenda in an integrated approach which places the SDGs at the core of EU policy.

European Year of Skills

In May 2023, the Council and European Parliament adopted Decision (EU) 2023/936 establishing the European Year of Skills (which runs from May 2023 to May 2024). Its overall objective is to promote a mindset of reskilling and upskilling, to address skills gaps and shortages, to boost the competitiveness of European business and create quality jobs.

The European Year of Skills will pursue four main objectives:

  • promoting investment in training and upskilling;
  • ensuring the skills of the workforce match the needs of employers, by closely cooperating with social partners and businesses;
  • matching people’s aspirations and skill sets with opportunities on the job market, especially for the green and digital transition and the economic recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic;
  • attracting people from outside the EU with relevant skills that will promote economic growth.

Among others, activities foreseen throughout the European year include:

  • conferences, forum discussions and other events to promote debate on the role and contribution of skills policies;
  • events to promote mutual learning on the actions and approaches that public, private and third-sector stakeholders can take;
  • initiatives to promote the provision, financing and uptake of upskilling and reskilling opportunities;
  • communication and awareness-raising campaigns on EU initiatives for upskilling and reskilling.

Further information can be found on a dedicated website.

A short reading guide

Coverage

Each chapter in the Eurostat regional yearbook presents statistical information in the form of maps, figures and infographics, accompanied by descriptive analyses highlighting the main findings. Regional indicators are presented for the following 13 subjects: population, health, education and training, the labour market, living conditions, the digital society, the economy, business, research and innovation, tourism, transport, the environment and agriculture.

The Eurostat regional yearbook contains regional statistics for the Member States of the EU, alongside data for a number of non-EU countries – EFTA countries (Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway and Switzerland) and candidate countries (Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Moldova, North Macedonia, Albania, Serbia, Türkiye and Ukraine).

The geographical descriptions used to group EU Member States, for example, ‘northern’, ‘eastern’, ‘southern’ and ‘western’ are not intended as political categorisations. Instead, these references are made in relation to the geographical location of one or more Member States, based on geography domain of Eurovoc, the European Commission’s multilingual thesaurus. The northern Member States are often distinguished between the Baltic countries (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania) and the Nordic countries (Denmark, Finland and Sweden).

The designations employed and the presentation of material in maps and figures do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the EU concerning the legal status of any country, territory or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

How to interpret the maps

A majority of the maps in the Eurostat regional yearbook are choropleth maps (that use different colour shades to show regional differences for a particular indicator or a combination of two indicators).

  • Most are composed of six sequential colours, from a light yellow (for low values) through to dark blue (for high values). The information presented has been normalised. In other words, rather than show data for absolute values (which could introduce bias linked to the size of each region), these maps are generally based on proportions or rates/ratios.
  • The class boundaries in each map are computed exclusively in relation to the distribution of regional values for EU Member States (even when maps also include data for regions in non-EU countries). The boundaries for the lower classes are based on the 10th and the 25th percentiles, the middle class on the 50th percentile, and the upper classes on the 75th and the 90th percentiles. Each of these boundaries was subsequently rounded up/down to make the class boundaries easier to read. As such, the lightest shade of yellow and the darkest shade of blue portrays those EU regions with approximately the lowest/highest 10 % of values.
  • Some choropleth maps have been produced using a diverging colour scheme. These maps have been produced to highlight the distribution of regions around a particular value (for example, those regions that have values that are above/below an EU policy target). Diverging choropleth maps in this edition of the Eurostat regional yearbook use three shades of teal/turquoise (progressively darker for values that are increasingly higher than the EU target) and three shades of gold (progressively darker for values that are increasingly lower than the EU target).
  • There are a small number of bivariate choropleth maps. These allow two indicators to be combined in a single map, for example, information on the share of people making use of the internet and how this share changed over time. These maps are composed of nine different colours, from a very light shade (for regions that have low values for both indicators) to a very dark shade (for regions that have high values for both indicators).

The Eurostat regional yearbook also includes two types of maps based on circles.

  • Proportional circles have been used to map data presented in absolute values (for example, the total number of people living in a region or the gross domestic product of a region); the size/area of each circle is linked to its underlying data.
  • Pie charts may also be used to map absolute values, although they also provide supplementary information for the share of various categories in the overall total. As above, the size/area of individual pie charts is linked to its underlying data.

Non-EU countries that are excluded from the spatial coverage of the Eurostat regional yearbook are systematically denoted in all maps using a light shade of grey. If data are not available for any regions in the EU Member States, EFTA countries or candidate countries, these are denoted using a darker shade of grey.

Timeliness

Information from a wide range of surveys and data collection exercises feed into the Eurostat regional yearbook. As a result, there may be differences concerning the latest available reference year between chapters and indicators, as each aims to show the latest information available. In general, 2022 data are available for demography (as used in the chapter on population), the labour force survey (as used in the chapters on education and training and the labour market), EU statistics on income and living conditions (as used in the chapter on living conditions) and the information society survey (as used in the chapter on the digital society). Otherwise, the most common reference period is generally 2021, as used in most of the other chapters, for example, the economy or tourism. Note that Eurostat’s website may have fresher data due to the continuous nature of data collection and processing (resulting in updates and new reference periods being added throughout the year). Online data codes are provided below each of the maps and figures and these can be used to locate the freshest data.

Metadata

Eurostat’s data are published with accompanying metadata that provide background information on each source, as well as specific information (flags) for individual data cells. The flags provide information relating to the status of the data, for example, detailing whether the data are estimated, provisional or forecasted. Such flags are generally not shown in this publication (in order to restrict the metadata presented under maps and figures to a minimum). For example, values that are flagged as confidential are simply shown as being ‘not available’; as such, they cannot be distinguished from other values where data have not been provided (for whatever reason).

When compiling the maps and figures for this edition of the Eurostat regional yearbook, cases where the latest data were missing were identified. Given the considerable impact of the COVID-19 crisis and its associated restrictions, two different approaches were employed to try to fill these gaps for missing data.

  • Datasets where the most recent data available were for 2020 or 2021: in these cases, because there could be considerable differences linked to COVID-19 impacts, an effort was made to fill missing cells with higher aggregates of NUTS or with national data rather than making use of data from an earlier reference period.
  • Datasets where the most recent data available were for 2019 or for 2022: in these cases, an effort was made to fill missing cells first with data for the previous year (at the same NUTS level) before making use of more aggregated NUTS levels or national data.

In both cases, the exceptions for different geographical levels or for different reference periods are documented in the notes. This is also the case for breaks in series and other major methodological differences.

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Notes

  1. REACT-EU provides additional funding to extend the EU’s crisis response to the COVID-19 pandemic, while contributing towards a green, digital and resilient recovery. It is designed to support: job maintenance, including through short-time work schemes and support for the self-employed; job creation and youth employment measures; health care systems; and the provision of working capital and investment support for small and medium-sized enterprises.

This article forms part of Eurostat’s annual flagship publication, the Eurostat regional yearbook.