Archive:First and second-generation immigrants - statistics on households
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Immigrants play an important role in the labour markets and economies of the countries they settle in. Economic integration into host societies is influenced by a set of socioeconomic characteristics of immigrants as individuals. In addition to these individual characteristics, household environment also has an impact on immigrants’ labour market outcomes and economic integration. This article presents EU statistics on the main characteristics of different types of immigrant households. The article analyses the distribution of households and their situation on the labour market, based on the migration status of the adults[1] in the household and their background[2]. In doing so, four separate household definitions are used throughout the article. Each household definition is presented in detail in the introduction of the data analysis. Based on these four household definitions, this article analyses the following:
- types of household based on the migration status of the adults in the household;
- types of household based on the migration background of the adults in the household;
- joint household distribution by migration status and background;
- the household composition of different types of households by migration status and background;
- the length of stay in the resident country for different types of households which include at least one first-generation immigrant adult;
- the labour market situation of different types of households.
Main statistical findings
In 2014, a little more than a fifth of EU households included at least one immigrant, regardless of migration generation or migration background. Looking at households composed solely of immigrants, their very high concentration is noted: three quarters of them were hosted by just four reporting countries: the United Kingdom, France, Italy and Spain. By comparison, all these four countries combined accounted for 60 % of all households in the 24 Member States that took part in the survey.
Analysing household composition from the perspective of migration status, we see that about one tenth of all households settled in the EU consisted solely of foreign-born adults, while another 3.2 % consisted solely of second-generation immigrants (native-born with foreign origins). Among households composed solely of immigrants, regardless of generation and combination of generations, we see that about two-thirds (or 62.1 %) of them had at least one adult with EU origins.
Moving on to a joint analysis of migration generation and background, we see that almost one fifth (or 17.9 %) of 'non-EU background households' consists solely of second-generation immigrants. By comparison, in about two thirds (or 67.5 %) of 'first-generation immigrant households', all adults have a non-EU background.
The household composition in terms of size, family links and presence or absence of dependent children varies among 'immigrant households'[3]. Thus, just over half of households composed solely of second-generation immigrants are 'single adults without dependent children'. A little more than half (52 %) of households composed solely of first-generation immigrants have no dependent children, which is 4.8 percentage points (pp) lower than in households consisting of solely native-born adults with native background.
Looking at the length of stay in the host country, we see that 'long-term settled immigrant households' (10 years and over) are more numerous than recently (1 to 5 years) and 'medium-term (6 to 9 years) settled immigrant households'. At least four in every five (or 83%) households consisting solely of immigrants are 'long-term settled households', where the first arrived foreign-born adult in the household has been living in the country for 10 years or more. The largest share of 'recently settled' (1 to 5 years) and 'medium-term settled households' (6 to 10 years) can be seen among 'foreign-born households', namely 12.9% and 16.7% respectively.
Analysing the impact on the labour market, in about half of households composed solely of immigrants all adults work, more precisely 51.7 %, or 4 pp less than for households composed of native-born adults with native background. On the other hand, in almost a quarter of households where all adult members have non-EU background, none of the adults work. In slightly more than half (or 55.1 %) of 'medium-term settled households', where the first-arrived foreign-born adult has been living in the country for more than 5 years but less than 10, all adults work, while in another 16.9% none of the adults work.
In the following paragraphs, detailed analyses are presented for each type of household, including a brief introduction of household concepts used.
Types of household based on the migration status of the adults in the household
Is the way adult members of a household behave in society and on the labour market in particular influenced by that household’s composition by migration status? Do households solely composed of first-generation immigrants behave differently from those with a mixed migration composition? Do households solely composed of second-generation immigrants resemble, to a large extent, those composed solely of native-born people with a native background? In general, how different are households by migration status of their adult members?
In order to have meaningful types of households to analyse, two broad migration statuses of a person are considered. The first of these is native-born with native background. This means that the person and both parents are born in the reporting country. The second is immigrant, i.e. either the reporting person or immediate descendants born abroad. Using these two statuses as a basis, we can identify the following three broad categories of households:
- (1) native households, where all adults are native-born with native background;
- (2) immigrant households, where all adults are immigrants;
- (3) mixed households, where at least one adult is native-born with a native background and at least one other adult is an immigrant.
The first two broad categories are simple because all adults in them are either native-born with a native background or immigrants. By contrast, the third includes any combination of native-born adults with immigrant adults, irrespective of generation.
In order to provide a more in-depth analysis on 'immigrant households', this category is further split based on the generation type. This gives us:
- (2a) second-generation immigrant households, where all adults are native-born with a least one foreign-born[4] parent (i.e. second-generation immigrants);
- (2b) first-generation immigrant households, where all adults are foreign-born (i.e. first-generation immigrants); and
- (2c) mixed immigrant households, where at least one adult is from the first-generation of immigrants (i.e. foreign-born) and at least one other adult is from the second-generation of immigrants.
Similar to the broad categories, the first two detailed immigrant sub-categories are simple because all adults in them are of a single immigrant generation, whereas the third includes any combination of the two immigrant generations. By definition, none of the adults in the three detailed 'immigrant households' is native-born with native background.
A little more than a fifth of EU households include at least one immigrant adult
In 2014, the EU had around 55 million immigrants aged from 15 to 64, which made up 17.7 % of the corresponding EU population. These people lived in around:
- 16.7 million 'immigrant households' i.e. consisting solely of immigrants, regardless of generation and combination of generations; and
- 9.4 million 'mixed households' i.e. where at least one adult is an immigrant, regardless of generation, while at least one other is native-born with native background.
They made up 14.2 % and 8 % respectively of all households in the EU (Figure 1).
Looking at the national share of households with at least one immigrant adult, regardless of generation (i.e. 'immigrant households' and 'mixed households' taken together), Luxembourg records by far the highest proportion of such households, with about three quarters of all households in the country (74.4 %) belonging to this category. However, Luxembourg accounts for only 0.5 % of the total households in the EU with at least one immigrant adult. In the remaining countries for which data are available, the national share of households with at least one immigrant adult ranges from about two fifths in Latvia (39.8 %) and Estonia (38.8 %) to 0.3 % in Romania. The large share of 'immigrant households' observed in Latvia and Estonia is largely explained by the high proportion of what are called recognised non-citizens in these two Baltic countries.
Similar to immigrant distribution across countries, households consisting only of immigrants (regardless of generation and combination of generations) are unevenly distributed across Member States. This is due to that three quarters of them are hosted by just four reporting countries (the United Kingdom, France, Italy and Spain). To put the statistic into context, these four countries account for 60 % of all households in the Member States that took part in the survey (Figure 2) . Moreover, 14 out of the 24 available Member States hold each 1 % or less of the total 'immigrant households' living in the EU and all together account for only 6.6 % of all 'immigrant households' living in the EU. This compares with 23.5 % of all households in the 24 reporting Member States.
Looking at EU level, we see that households consisting solely of foreign-born adults represent 67.7 % of all EU 'immigrant households' and 9.6 % of all households in the EU (Figure 3). Households consisting of both native-born adults with native background and immigrant adults, irrespective of generation, represent 8 % of all households in the EU .
Types of household based on the migration background of the adults in the household
"Intra-EU free movement and labour immigration from third countries are […] the two pillars on which the EU is basing its economic growth and social cohesion policies […] ."[5] Therefore, this article looks at differences between households with an EU and non-EU migration background. It also attempts to provide comparative analysis between households with and without any migration background. In doing so, further distinction is made between native origin and EU background. In this context, native origin means that the country of birth of the respondents and their parents is the reporting country while EU background means that the country of birth of the respondents or their parents, as applicable, is an EU country but a different one than the reporting country.
The migration background of a native-born adult is based on the country of birth of their parents. Thus, if neither parent is foreign-born, the respective native-born person has native origins. On the other hand, in situations where at least one parent is foreign-born, we can say that the respective native-born adult has an EU background if at least one parent is born in the EU and a non-EU background if both parents are born outside the EU. The migration background of a foreign-born adult is based on their country of birth as follows: ‘EU background’ if the country of birth is in the EU and ‘non-EU background’ if not.
Similar to a household’s migration status, its migration background is built around combinations of the migration background of the adults in the household. In this article the following household typology is used:
- native background households, where all adults have a background (origins) in the reporting country;
- EU background households, where at least one adult has an EU background and none have a non-EU background;
- non-EU background households, where all adults have a non-EU background;
- mixed background households, where at least one adult has a background in any EU country, including the reporting country, and at least one adult has a background in a non-EU country.
Only households of native background and of non-EU background are simple categories, where solely one type of migration background is present in the household. All other households by migration background may include combinations of different types of background. Thus, 'EU background households' may include, alongside adults with EU origins, native-born adults with a native background. In other words, this category indicates the presence of an EU migration background and the absence of a non-EU migration background, irrespective of the absence or presence of a native-born adult with native background. The category of households of mixed origins is an explicit combination between adults of a non-EU background and adults of an EU or native background.
About two thirds of 'immigrant households' in the EU have an adult with non-EU origins in their composition
As expected, the large majority of households, 76.3 %, include only native-born adults with a native background, while about 9 % are households with EU migration origins and about the same proportion are households with non-EU migration origins. The remaining households, almost 5 %, have a mixed background (Figure 4).
Looking at households with at least one adult with foreign origins, we can see that those of EU and non-EU origin are almost equally distributed, each representing around 40 % of total households in the EU with at least one adult with foreign origins. The remaining households, about 20 %, are of mixed origin where both EU and non-EU origins are present.
About a quarter of households in Estonia (25.7 %) and Latvia (22.9 %) include solely adults of non-EU origin (Table 1). These two Baltic countries show a larger share of households of non-EU origin than the other available EU countries, most probably because many people living in Estonia and Latvia were born in other parts of the former Soviet Union and moved to these countries before the break-up of the USSR. A second group of countries consisting of Sweden (15.6 %), France (13.2 %) and the United Kingdom (13.1 %) also have relatively large shares of households consisting solely of adults with a non-EU background in the total number of households living in the country.
Joint household distribution by migration status and background
Households consisting solely of immigrants are mainly 'non-EU background households'
Having analysed household composition from the separate perspectives of migration status and background, we will now move on to a joint analysis.
First, we observe what kind of origins the different types of households by migration status have (Figure 5). At EU level, slightly less than two thirds (or 63.8 %) of households consisting solely of immigrants include at least one adult with a non-EU background. In about two thirds (or 67.5 %) of 'first-generation immigrant households', all adults also have a non-EU background.
Among immigrant households (i.e. consisting solely of immigrants, irrespective of generation and combination of generations), the largest proportion of 'EU background households' can be observed in 'second-generation immigrant households' (44.7 %, which is 15.4 pp. higher than among 'first-generation immigrant households' and 26.2 pp. higher than among 'mixed immigrant households').
Mixed households (i.e. consisting of immigrant adults alongside native-born adults with native background) show a slightly higher proportion of mixed background (51.1 %) than those of EU background (48.9 %).
Next, we analyse the relationship between the background (EU/non-EU origin) of a household together with the migration status (native-born/first or second-generation immigrants). The vast majority of 'mixed background households' (86.3 %) consist of both native-born adults with native background and immigrants, regardless of generation but with a non-EU background (Figure 6). By contrast, 46.3 % of 'EU background households' consist also of both native-born adults with native background and immigrants, regardless of generation, but this time with an EU background. The largest proportion (71.6 %) of 'foreign-born households' is observed among 'non-EU background households'.
Another interesting fact is that about one fifth (or 17.9 %) of 'non-EU background households' consist solely of second-generation immigrant adults, all of them having a non-EU background. Similarly, about one tenth of 'non-EU background households' consist of both generations of immigrants, with each adult in both generations having a non-EU background.
Household composition of different types of households by migration status and background
Does household composition in terms of size, family links and presence/absence of dependent children also influence the household’s behaviour in society? This article looks at the household composition of different types of households by the migration status or background of the adults in the households. The table below presents a typology of households based on their composition:
Just over half of 'second-generation immigrant households' are single adults without dependent children
Looking at household composition, we see that households consisting solely of immigrants tend more to be 'single adult households' than the households consisting solely of natives with native background. Among 'immigrant households', the 'second-generation immigrant households' show the largest proportion of 'single adult households', namely 71 %, which is 39.1 pp. higher than among 'native households' (Figure 7). 'Mixed immigrant households' and 'mixed households' cannot be 'single adult households'. This is because they are composed of a minimum of two adult members. For 'mixed immigrant households', this could mean at least one first-generation immigrant and at least one second-generation immigrant. For 'mixed households', this could mean at least one native-born adult with native background and at least one immigrant adult, regardless of the generation. Nevertheless, 'mixed households' tend more to be couples (77 %) than 'mixed immigrant households' (52.1 %) do. The predominance of this type of household composition comes at the expense of other types of households (i.e. with a minimum of two adults in the household for this particular case, but with no family links or links other than marital links). Among all household groups where all compositions are possible, 'native households' and 'first-generation immigrant households' are mostly couples.
The largest proportion of 'couples with children' (46.2 %) can be observed among 'mixed households' (i.e. consisting of immigrant adults alongside native-born adults with native background). By contrast, the largest proportion of 'single adults without children' (53.2 %) is noted among 'second-generation immigrant households'. This is probably because second-generation immigrants tend on average to be younger[6]. A little more than half of 'first-generation immigrant households' have no children (52 %), which is 4.8 pp. less than in households consisting solely of native-born adults with native background.
Households including at least one adult with a non-EU background are more likely to have dependent children
The distribution by household composition of 'EU background households' is similar to that of 'native background households'. The largest significant difference is that the percentage of 'couples' in 'EU background households' is 7.1 pp. higher than in 'native background households' (Figure 8). The structural difference is almost equally distributed between 'single adult households' (3.2 % more in 'native background households') and 'other types of households' (3.9 % more in 'native background households'). This may also reflect a more diverse age range for people who are native-born with native background compared to immigrants[7].
There is a higher proportion of 'households with children' among households where at least one adult has a non-EU background (i.e. 'non-EU background households' and 'mixed background households' taken together) than there is among households where there is no adult with a non-EU background. 50.7 % of households with a non-EU background and 57.0 % of households with a mixed background are 'households with dependent children', compared with just 43.1 % for households with a native background and households with an EU background.
The length of stay in the resident country of different types of households that include at least one first-generation adult
According to the data, the longer the length of stay in the country, the better integrated immigrants are and subsequently, the better integrated the 'immigrant household' is into society and the labour market (e.g. through acquisition of citizenship of the host country, but also from a labour market perspective)[8] . In this analysis, an immigrant’s length of stay represents the number of years from between the year of arrival and the reference period of the survey (i.e. 2014). No length of stay can be calculated for native-born adults as they were born in the reporting country.
The length of stay at household level is derived by taking the maximum[9] number of years since migrating among all foreign-born adults in the household, if any. As all adults in 'native households' and 'second-generation immigrant households' are born in the country of residence, these two household types are excluded from analyses of the length of stay. Also, the indicator cannot be computed for 'mixed households' consisting solely of native-born adults (i.e. a combination of native-born people with native background and second-generation immigrants). Apart from 'native background households', all household categories by background are analysed for length of stay. All in all, the indicator can be calculated only for those households that include at least one foreign-born adult (i.e. first-generation immigrant).
'Long-term settled households' are more numerous than 'recent' and 'medium-term settled households'
11.1 % of the households in the EU are 'long-term settled immigrant households' where the first arrived foreign-born adult in the household has been living in the country for more than 10 years (Figure 9). Another 2.1 % of households in the EU are 'medium-term settled immigrant households', where the first arrived foreign-born adult has been living in the country for more than 5 years but less than 10 years. Even fewer 'immigrant households' are 'recently settled households' (1.7 %) in which the first arrived foreign-born adult in the household has spent less than 5 years in the country. The remaining 83.6 % of households in the EU consist solely of native-born adults regardless of background (i.e. having native-born parents or foreign-born parents).
Around half (or 50.7 %) of 'mixed households' in the EU (i.e. having at least one native-born adult with native background and at least one immigrant adult, irrespective of generation) include only native-born adults. This means that the immigrant adult in the household is actually a second-generation immigrant, and therefore the indicator for length of stay does not apply to that person. More precisely, these households consist of both categories i.e. second-generation immigrants and native-born adults with a native background.
'Long-term settled households' (i.e. 10 years and over) was the most prevalent category among households including both first and second-generation immigrant adults (83.6 %). The largest share of 'recently settled' (1 to 5 years) and 'medium-term settled households' (5 to 10 years) can be seen among 'foreign-born households', namely 12.9 % and 16.7 % respectively. This is mostly because the 'mixed immigrant households' are by construction older on average, as they consist in most cases of parents with at least one adult child, while the other categories include a very large number of cases that do not apply to this indicator.
At national level, Luxembourg has the highest percentage of households with at least one foreign-born adult, regardless of length of stay (Table 2): 14.5 % of households in Luxembourg are 'recently settled households', 9.5 % are 'medium-term settled households' and 37.1 % are 'long-term settled households'. This is followed by Cyprus, who by comparison registered only 7.5 % 'recently settled households', 6.9 % 'medium-term settled households' and 19 % 'long-term settled households'. In 6 countries (Slovenia, Greece, France, Portugal, Estonia and Croatia) the proportion of recently settled and medium-term settled households altogether was very low (3 % or less in total households in the country) even if the proportion of long-settled households was significant (it ranged from 10.5 % to about 17.3 % in the total households living in the country).
'Non-EU background households' are mainly 'long-term settled households'
Moving on to the question of background (i.e. the country of birth of the foreign-born adults in the households and of parents of native-born adults in the household), it is noteworthy that almost two thirds (or 62.8 %) of households consisting solely of adults with a non-EU background are 'long-term settled households' (Figure 10). The 'EU background households' and 'mixed background households' are also mainly 'long-term settled households' (37.8 % and 45.7 % respectively).
The share of 'recently settled' and 'medium-term settled households' is very similar across all households with at least one adult with a foreign background. The proportion of 'recently settled households' ranges from 7.1 % in 'mixed background households' to 10.7 % in 'non-EU background households', while for 'medium-term settled households' the range is from 6.1 % in 'mixed background households' to 8.1 % in EU and in 'non-EU background households'.
Labour market situation of different types of households
Access to employment is a key indicator of immigrants’ integration and economic well-being. In order to analyse to what extent households are in employment or not, it is necessary to define categories of households based on the access to employment of adults in the household.
A first such category is households in employment, where all adults in the household work, regardless of type of contract (e.g. permanent or temporary) or working time (e.g. part- or full-time).
The reverse of this category is households not in employment, where none of the adults work, meaning that all adults in such households are either unemployed or inactive (i.e. they are not part of the labour force). As the reference population is aged from 15 to 64, the amount of retired people is almost negligible, covering, for example, people retired for medical reasons or categories of people who can retire earlier than the normal age limit. The inactive population covered by the ad-hoc module is mostly made up of pupils, students and home makers. For the purpose of this indicator they are counted in the same way as unemployed people.
A third category, households partially in employment is a mixed one, where at least one adult works and at least one other does not work.
Households in employment can be further split by working time into two categories: households in full-time employment, where all adults work full-time, and households in part-time employment, where all adults work and at least one adult works part-time.
In about half of immigrant households, all adults work
According to this indicator, the labour market participation of households consisting solely of immigrants, regardless of generation and combinations, differs very slightly from that of native-born people with a native background. Thus, in about half of 'immigrant households' all adults work, more precisely 51.7 %, or 4pp less than for 'native households' (Figure 11). By contrast, in 21.9 % of 'immigrant households', none of the adults work (i.e. they are either inactive or unemployed), 4pp more than for 'native households'. The share of 'households partially in employment' (i.e. at least one adult member works and one adult does not work) is the same among the two types of households analysed (26.5 %).
All adults work in 64.4 % of 'second-generation immigrant households', the highest percentage among all types of households by migration status. On the other hand, in a quarter of 'second-generation immigrant households' (25.2 %) none of the adults work (i.e. is either inactive or unemployed). This is 7.5 pp. more than for 'native households' and 2.9 pp. more than for 'first-generation immigrant households'. The different age structure of the types of households by migration status may have an impact on this distribution, as 'second-generation immigrant households' tend to be younger and therefore may have not completed their studies yet .
In about half of 'mixed immigrant household's (i.e. including both first and second-generation immigrants but where none of the adults are native with a native background), at least one adult works while at least one other does not work. In 90 % of 'mixed households' (i.e. consisting of both native-born people with native background and immigrants, irrespective of generation) at least one adult member works. This is 8.6 pp. more than for households consisting solely of native-born adults with native background.
Analysing the 'households in employment' (i.e. all adults work), the largest share of households where all adults work full-time is met among 'second-generation immigrant households'. For this category, the figure is 77.6 % or 2.1 pp. more than for households consisting solely of native-born adults with a native background.
In about a quarter of 'non-EU background households', none of the adults work
The distribution by employment of 'EU background households' and 'native background households' is almost the same (Figure 12). However, we see significant differences when comparing 'EU and non-EU background households'. Thus, in 23.3 % of households consisting solely of adults with a non-EU background, none of the adults work, while for 'EU background households' the figure is only 15.4 %. Also, where both EU and non-EU backgrounds are present in the household, none of the adults work in less than 10 % of households, this proportion being the lowest among all types of households by background. Where both EU and non-EU backgrounds are present in the household, at least one adult works in about two fifths (or 37 %) of households, this proportion being the highest among all types of households by background.
In slightly more than half of 'medium-term settled households', all adults work
Looking at the indicator for length of stay in the country, in 55.1 % of 'medium-term settled households' all adults work, while in another 16.9 % none of the adults work (Figure 13). The proportion of households in which none of the adults work is the highest for those who are recently settled (21.1 %). For 'medium-term and long-term settled households', the figures are largely identical (around 17 %). 'Medium-term settled households' hold the smallest proportion (28 %) of 'households partially in employment'. In turn, more than half of 'medium-term settled households' are in employment. This is the highest proportion among all types of households by length of stay.
Data sources and availability
The data collected by Eurostat come from the 2014 Labour Force survey (LFS) ad-hoc module on ‘The labour market situation of immigrants and their immediate descendants’. The target population of the 2014 LFS ad-hoc module consists of all persons aged 15-64 living in private households. The EU aggregates in the article do not include data for Germany, Denmark, Ireland and the Netherlands as these countries did not participate in the 2014 LFS ad-hoc module.
Context
There is high political and scientific interest in comparative information on the labour market situation of immigrants. This set of comprehensive and comparable data on the labour market situation of immigrants and their immediate descendants is aimed at monitoring progress on the labour market situation of immigrants, to analyse the factors affecting their integration in and adaptation to the labour market. The policy background for the 2014 ad-hoc module can be found in the following EU documents:
- The Zaragoza Declaration, adopted in April 2010 by EU Ministers responsible for immigrant integration issues, and approved at the Justice and Home Affairs Council on 3-4 June 2010. The Declaration calls upon the Commission (Eurostat and DG HOME) to carry out a pilot study to study common integration indicators from harmonised data sources.
- ‘EUROPE 2020: A strategy for smart, sustainable and inclusive growth’, outlining three mutually reinforcing objectives of smart, sustainable, and inclusive growth. It has a strong focus on employment, stressing the need for increasing labour market participation, with more and better jobs as essential elements of Europe’s socioeconomic model.
- The Commission Communication of 20 July 2011 on the ‘European Agenda for the Integration of Third Country Nationals’, which focuses on enhancing the economic, social and cultural benefits of migration in Europe and on achieving immigrants’ full participation in all aspects of collective life.
- The Commission Communication of 18 November 2011 on ‘The Global Approach to Migration and Mobility’, which sets out the Commission’s adapted policy framework on migration as part of a renewed Global Approach to Migration and Mobility (GAMM).
- The European Commission has adopted an Action Plan on the integration of third-country nationals on 7 June 2016, which provides a comprehensive framework to support Member States’ efforts in developing and strengthening their integration policies, and describes the concrete measures the Commission will implement in this regard.
See also
- First and second-generation immigrants - a statistical overview
- Migrant integration statistics (online publication)
- Migration and migrant population statistics
- Population and population change statistics
- Statistics for European policies and high-priority initiatives
Further Eurostat information
Data visualisation
- Regional Statistics Illustrated - select statistical domain 'Population' 'and 'Demography' (top right)
Publications
Database
- LFS ad-hoc modules (lfso)
- 2014. Migration and labour market (lfso_14)
- Immigrants and household (lfso_14hh)
- Households by migration status, country of birth of parents and household composition (lfso_14hhcompcob)
- Households by migration status, working status and years of residence (lfso_14hhwkmg)
- Households by country of birth of parents, working status and years of residence (lfso_14hhwkcob)
- 2014. Migration and labour market (lfso_14)
Dedicated section
Methodology / Metadata
- 2014. Migration and labour market (ESMS metadata file — lfso_14)
Source data for tables, figures and maps (MS Excel)
Other information
- COM (2016) 377 Communication on the Action Plan on the integration of third country nationals
External links
- European Commission - Home Affairs - Immigration
- European Union Democracy Observatory on Citizenship
- European Web Site on Integration
- Country ranking by Human Development Index (United Nations Development Programme)
- OECD - International migration (feed)
- International Migration Outlook 2013
Notes
- ↑ For this article, the adult is defined as that person aged 18 years and older who is not a dependent child. A dependent child is the individual aged either 0-17 years or 18-24 years if inactive and living with at least one parent.
- ↑ The term ‘background’ refers here to the total of a person’s experience, knowledge and education (see Merriam-Webster dictionary). The ‘migration background’ refers thus to the origins of a person that are the main determinant of an immigrant’s experience, knowledge and education. Therefore, the terms ‘background’ and ‘origins’ are synonyms in the context of this article. While the official statistical terminology uses the term ‘background’, in data analysis the term ‘origins’ could be also used to give more fluidity to the text (the term ‘origin’ is more frequently used in specialist literature and is therefore preferred by the general public).
- ↑ households where all adults are in first or second-generation of immigrants
- ↑ A foreign-born person is a person born in a country other than the reporting country. The terms ‘foreign-born’ and ‘first-generation immigrant’ are used interchangeably in this article.
- ↑ EPRS | European Parliamentary Research Service – Briefing of July 2015 on "Third-country migration and European labour markets. Integrating foreigners"
- ↑ See the SE article "First and second-generation immigrants: statistics on main characteristics"
- ↑ See the SE article "First and second-generation immigrants: statistics on main characteristics"
- ↑ See the SE article "First and second-generation immigrants: main labour market outcomes"
- ↑ The first arrived foreign-born transmits his/her experience and knowledge to all others members in the household. Therefore we estimate that taking the maximum number is the best indicator (instead of, for instance, average or minimum)
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