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Culture statistics - international trade in cultural goods

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Data extracted in October 2023.

Planned article update: October 2024.

Highlights

In 2022, the value of intra-EU trade in cultural goods was higher than the value of extra-EU trade in cultural goods.

In 2022 cultural goods were exported outside the EU for a value of 25 billion euro.


Sankey flow diagram showing the value in euro millions of extra-EU exports of cultural goods by main partner and by category in the EU in 2022.


This article is part of the Culture statistics online publication. Trade statistics for cultural goods provide information on the value of international exchanges of these goods (based on current prices when data were captured) and show the proportion of cultural trade relative to all EU international trade. The analysis looks mainly at data from 2022 and presents:

  • export and import values in absolute and relative terms (in euro million and as a share of total trade respectively);
  • extra-EU and intra-EU trade;
  • the type of goods traded;
  • the EU’s main trading partners;
  • a five-year comparison to account for mid-term tendencies in the sector.

Statistics on international trade in cultural goods are based on data extracted from Comext, Eurostat’s database on international trade in goods.


Full article


Cultural trade in 2022 at EU and national level


This article analyses statistics on international trade in cultural goods for the EU, six candidate countries (Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Albania, Serbia and Türkiye) and one potential candidate (Kosovo)[1].

Trade partners for the EU and Member States

The aggregated data for the EU concern extra-EU trade, presenting the EU as a single entity and excluding intra-EU trade (between the Member States). By contrast, trade data at national level for individual Member States concern both intra-EU and extra-EU trade.


Cultural goods in international trade, are those using ’creation’ or ’artistic expression’ in the production process, the purpose of which is to transmit aesthetic, symbolic or artistic values, or which are considered to enable artistic expression or can be recognised as designed primarily to provide access to cultural content.

Goods meeting those criteria are identified in 12 meaningful groups of cultural products – ’antiques’, ’works of art’, ’craft articles’, ’jewellery’, ’books’, ’newspapers, journals and periodicals’, ’maps’, ’architectural plans and drawings’, ’photographic plates and films’, ’recorded media’, ’video game consoles’, and ’musical instruments’ (see Figure 10). These groups are very diverse; some contain products for mass consumption (’books’, ’newspapers’) and others only specialised items that might have little demand or supply (’maps’, ’photographic plates and films’). The statistics do not cover the large-scale manufactured products that partially give access to cultural content (for example, TV sets, cameras, smartphones, or tablets).


Extra-EU trade in cultural goods – 2017 and 2022 overview

When comparing 2022 and 2017, the value of extra-EU exports of cultural goods grew by 22.3 % (from €20.8 billion in 2017 to €25.4 billion in 2022), and the value of extra-EU imports grew by 25.0 % (from €17.0 billion in 2017 to €21.3 billion in 2022). The trade surplus for cultural goods increased from €3.7 billion in 2017 to €4.1 billion in 2022. The ratio of exports to imports – the ’cover ratio’ – was 1.22 in 2017 and 1.19 in 2022 (see Table 1).

’Jewellery’ (48.6 %),’recorded media’ (12.1 %) and ’works of art’ (11.5 %) contributed the most to the value of extra-EU cultural goods exports in 2017. In 2022 the largest share in the extra-EU exports of cultural goods was again held by products from the 'jewellery' category (54.4 %), followed by 'works of art' (12.8 %) and 'books' (7.7 %).

Concerning extra-EU imports, in 2017, 'jewellery' (34.1 %), 'video games consoles' (25.8 %) and 'books' (9.2 %) contributed the most to the value of international trade in cultural goods. In 2022, the largest contribution to the value of total cultural goods imports were products from the 'jewellery' (31.9 %), 'video games consoles' (26.4 %) and 'works of art' (11.4 %) categories.

Comparing 2022 with 2017, the increase in the value of total exports of cultural goods was mainly caused by the rise in exports of 'jewellery' (+€3.7 billion) and works of art' products (+€0.9 billion). However, this increase was counterbalanced by a decrease in the value of exports of 'recorded media' (-€0.7 billion) and 'video game consoles ' (-€0.3 billion). Between these two years, the main contributors to the increase in the total value of cultural goods imports were the products from the 'video game consoles' (+€1.2 billion) and 'works of art' categories (+€1 billion).

Table showing the extra-EU trade in cultural goods by category for 2017 and 2022. The columns show for each year the exports, imports and trade balance in euro millions, the cover ratio, as well as the relative change in value, as a percentage, between 2017 and 2022 for exports and imports.
Table 1: Extra-EU trade in cultural goods, EU, 2017 and 2022
Source: Eurostat (cult_trd_prd)



International trade in cultural goods fully recovered after the 2020 crisis

The changes in the value of exports and imports of international trade in cultural goods described above should be placed in a broader time context. With an unprecedented collapse in the value of extra-EU exports and imports in 2020, the COVID-19 crisis had a visible impact on international trade in cultural goods.

Figure 1 shows the evolution of extra-EU trade in goods over the years. The stable growth in value of the extra-EU trade in cultural goods (solid lines) between 2015 and 2019 collapsed in 2020. The chart shows that imports and exports of cultural goods followed a different pattern during the crisis. In 2020, the imports of cultural goods were less impacted than total imports. By contrast, exports of cultural goods in 2020 had a stronger decrease compared with the total exports. Both imports and exports rebounded in 2021, with a stable increasing trend also in 2022, which was particularly strong for cultural imports.

In 2022, cultural goods corresponded to around 1 % of the overall EU’s value of (extra-EU) exports, and 0.7 % of imports in total goods. The value of extra-EU exports in cultural goods was €25.4 billion, and the value of imports was €21.3 billion.

Line chart with four lines showing the evolution of extra-EU imports and exports in cultural goods and in total goods for the EU between 2011 and 2022.
Figure 1: Evolution of extra-EU imports and exports in cultural goods and in total goods, EU, 2011-2022
(index, 2011=100)
Source: Eurostat (cult_trd_prd) and (ext_lt_introEU27_2020)


International trade in cultural goods in the EU Member States

As shown in Table 2, the value of cultural goods exports increased in 21 of the 27 Member States between 2017 and 2022. The highest increase was registered in Ireland, with a value in 2022 that was 3.9 times higher than five years before. The absolute value of exports increased the most in Italy (+€3.5 billion), France (+€1.9 billion), and Ireland (+€1.2 billion). It decreased the most in Poland (-€0.2 billion).

The value of cultural goods imports increased in 26 Member States. The largest increases in absolute terms were recorded in the Netherlands (+€2.1 billion), Germany (+€1.3 billion) and Ireland (+€0.9 billion). By contrast, Czechia was the only country with a slightly decreasing value of imports compared with 2017.

In 2022, only 10 Member States had a positive trade balance in cultural goods. The largest positive trade balance in cultural goods was in Italy (+€7.9 billion), followed by France (+€1.0 billion) and Poland (+€0.7 billion). Italy was the trade balance leader in both years. By contrast, in 2022, the largest trade deficit in cultural goods was recorded in the Netherlands (-€1 billion).

Table showing the international trade in cultural goods in 2017 and 2022 for the EU, the EU Member States, some of the candidate countries and one of the potential candidates. The columns show for each year the exports, imports and trade balance in euro millions, the cover ratio, as well as the relative change in value, as a percentage, between 2017 and 2022 for exports and imports.
Table 2: International trade in cultural goods, 2017 and 2022
Source: Eurostat (cult_trd_prd)



Contribution of cultural trade to overall exports

In 2022, the share of exports of cultural goods in total exports was higher than the EU average (1.0 %) in only 2 Member States (based on extra-EU and intra-EU trade): Italy (1.8 %), France (1.7 %). Cultural goods accounted for a relatively low share of total exports in Finland (0.1 %), Cyprus, Luxembourg, Hungary, Belgium and Romania (0.2 % each).

Looking at the five-year perspective, between 2017 and 2022 the contribution of cultural goods to total exports increased at least 0.1 percentage points in 5 Member States, with the biggest relative increase in Ireland (up from 0.3 % to 0.8 %). In 19 Member States, the share of cultural goods in total exports decreased, with the largest decline in Cyprus (down from 1.4 % to 0.2 %) (see Figure 2).

Double vertical bar chart showing the exports of cultural goods as a share of total exports in 2017 and 2022 for the EU, the EU Member States, some of the candidate countries and one potential candidate.
Figure 2: Exports of cultural goods as a share of total exports, 2017 and 2022
(%)
Source: Eurostat (cult_trd_prd)


Contribution of cultural trade to overall imports

In the EU, cultural goods accounted for 0.7 % of total (extra-EU) imports in 2022, compared with 1.0 % in 2017 (see Figure 3). In 3 Member States, the share of cultural goods in total imports was higher in 2022 than in 2017. The contribution of cultural goods to total imports grew most notably in Ireland (up from 0.7 % to 1.1 %). The highest share of cultural goods in total imports in 2022 was in France and Ireland, (both 1.1 %). The share of cultural goods in total imports was the lowest in Slovenia, Lithuania, Romania and Hungary.


Double vertical bar chart showing the imports of cultural goods as a share of total imports in 2017 and 2022 for the EU, the EU Member States, some of the candidate countries and one potential candidate.
Figure 3: Imports of cultural goods as a share of total imports, 2017 and 2022
(%)
Source: Eurostat (cult_trd_prd)


Intra-EU and extra-EU trade


Exports

The ratio between intra-EU and extra-EU trade shows the diversity of a country’s trade patterns and may reflect historical ties and geographical location. Care should be taken when interpreting the size of intra-EU trade relative to extra-EU trade, in particular because of significant quasi-transit trade in some EU Member States (for example, the Netherlands).[2]

In 2022, the estimated total value of cultural goods exported by Member States (both within and outside the EU) was €50 billion. Cultural products accounting for 49.3 % of this value were destined to other Member States, and 50.7 % were destined to non-EU countries (see Figure 4). In 22 Member States, at least half of the total export value of cultural goods came from trade with other Member States.

In several cases, this share was considerably higher: more than 96 % in Slovakia and almost 90 % in Poland. By contrast, the value of extra-EU exports exceeded the value of intra-EU exports in Ireland, Malta, France, Italy and Sweden.

Vertical stacked bar chart showing the share of extra-EU and intra-EU trade in all exports of cultural goods in 2022 for the EU, the EU Member States, some of the candidate countries and one potential candidate.
Figure 4: Share of extra-EU and intra-EU trade in all exports of cultural goods, 2022
(%)
Source: Eurostat (cult_trd_prd)



Imports

For imports of cultural goods by Member States, the total estimated value in 2022 was €44 billion. Around 51.1 % of this value from cultural products was due to imports from other Member States, and 48.9 % from non-EU countries (see Figure 5). In 23 Member States, more than 50 % of all imports of cultural goods were from other Member States. This share reached 93 % in Slovakia, and at least 80 % in Poland, Portugal, Croatia and Romania.

By contrast, more than 50 % of imports of cultural goods were from outside the EU in the Netherlands (84.7 %), Ireland (61.3 %), Germany (51.9 %) and France (50.7 %).

Vertical stacked bar chart showing the share of extra-EU and intra-EU trade in all imports of cultural goods in 2022 for the EU, the EU Member States, some of the candidate countries and one potential candidate.
Figure 5: Share of extra-EU and intra-EU trade in all imports of cultural goods, 2022
(%)
Source: Eurostat (cult_trd_prd)


Trade in cultural goods by product


Exports of cultural goods by categories

In 2022, jewellery made of precious metals and stones accounted for more than half of extra-EU exports total value of cultural goods. Over 80 % of extra-EU exports value of cultural goods were in four main categories: ’jewellery’ (54.4 %), ’works of art’ (12.9 %), ‘books’ (7.7 %) and ’recorded media’ (7.2 %) (see Table 3).

The level of trade in cultural goods is affected by many factors, including the characteristics of cultural products that make them mass-market or niche products, technological innovations driving new consumption patterns, abilities among countries in producing and processing these goods, etc.

The categories of cultural products and the Member States where these categories are the leading domains of the total export of cultural goods are listed below.

  • ‘Jewellery’ accounted for more than half of the total value of cultural goods exports in Italy (80.4 %), Cyprus (66.2 %), Ireland (63.4 %) and France (59.6 %). In a further seven countries (Belgium, Bulgaria, Denmark, Germany, Spain, Luxembourg, Malta), ‘jewellery’ remained the main category of cultural goods but didn’t exceed 50 % of total cultural goods exports value.
  • ’Works of art’ were the main cultural goods (in terms of value) exported from Greece (33.7 %).
  • Books were the main cultural goods exported by seven Member States – accounting for more than half of total exports value from Latvia (66.6 %) and Slovenia (56.4 %) – followed by Lithuania, Hungary, Slovakia, Poland and Croatia.
  • The ’recorded media’ category amounted to the highest share of total cultural goods export value in three Member States – Austria (42.5 %), Czechia (41.9 %) and Finland (32.1 %).
  • The ’video game consoles’category had high shares in 2 Member States, accounting for 40.6 % of the total cultural goods exports value in the Netherlands (see footnote 1) and 27.3 % in Sweden.
  • Craft articles (handmade fabrics and ornamental articles) were the most exported (in terms of value) type of cultural goods from Portugal (40.3 %).
  • Products in the ’newspapers, journals and periodicals’ category were the most common cultural goods (in terms of value) exported from Estonia (33.6 %) and Romania (25.0 %).


Table showing the exports of cultural goods by product category in 2022 for the EU, the EU Member States, some of the candidate countries and one of the potential candidates.
Table 3: Exports of cultural goods by product category, 2022
Source: Eurostat (cult_trd_prd)



Imports of cultural goods by categories

In 2022, five categories accounted for 85.4 % of the total imports value of cultural goods into the EU from non-EU countries: ’jewellery’ (31.9 %), ’video game consoles’ (26.4 %), ’works of art’ (11.4 %), ’books’ (8.9 %) and ’musical instruments’ (6.7 %) – see Table 4.

Looking at imports in individual Member States (and therefore taking account of both intra-EU imports and extra-EU imports):

  • in 15 countries, the value of ‘jewellery’ imports was higher than the imports value of any other type of cultural good. In Italy the category accounted for 52.0 % of total imported cultural goods value;
  • for six countries, video game consoles had the highest share in the total value of cultural goods imports: the Netherlands (61.1 % of all imported cultural goods), Poland, Spain, Slovakia, Sweden and Germany;
  • in four countries, books were the most common type of cultural imports: Slovenia (36.8 % of total cultural goods imports value), Belgium, Finland, and Hungary;
  • craft articles accounted for the highest share of total cultural goods imports value in Bulgaria (40.4 % of all imported cultural goods) and Romania.


Table showing the imports of cultural goods by product category in 2022 for the EU, the EU Member States, some of the candidate countries and one of the potential candidates.
Table 4: Imports of cultural goods by product category, 2022
Source: Eurostat (cult_trd_prd)


The EU’s main partners for trade in cultural goods


Leading destinations for EU exports of cultural goods in 2022

The total share of cultural goods market held by the EU’s 10 main export partners in cultural-goods trade remained stable at 78 % between 2017 and 2022.

In 2022, the EU’s main export markets for cultural goods were Switzerland (accounting for 22.9 % of all extra-EU exports of cultural goods by value, €5.8 billion), the United States (18.9 %, €4.8 billion) and the United Kingdom (11.9 %, €3.0 billion). Together, they accounted for over half of all exports of cultural goods. Exports to each of the EU’s other trade partners were all below 10 % (see Figure 6).

Comparing 2022 with 2017, exports of cultural goods to the United States increased by €1.9 billion. This was the largest growth in the value of exports in absolute terms to a single partner.

In the observed period, the absolute value of cultural goods exports decreased the most in trading with the United Kingdom (by €0.7 billion).


Double vertical bar chart showing the extra EU exports of cultural goods in 2017 and 2022 for the main trade partners in 2022.
Figure 6: 2022 main partners for extra-EU exports of cultural goods, EU, 2017 and 2022
(%)
Source: Eurostat (cult_trd_prt)


Leading countries of origin for cultural goods imported into the EU in 2022

The total share of cultural goods market held by the EU’s 10 main import partners in cultural-goods trade decreased from 93.3 % in 2017 to 91.6 % in 2022 (see Figure 7).

In 2022, almost a third of imports of cultural goods to the EU (32.1 %) came from China. 5 countries – China, Switzerland (14 %), the United States (13.9 %), the United Kingdom (10.6 %) and Japan (5.0 %) accounted for three-quarters of all cultural goods imports to the EU.

Comparing imports of cultural goods from the EU’s main partners between 2017 and 2022, the most significant increase concerned China (from €4.8 billion in 2017 to €6.8 billion in 2022). Conversely, the most significant decreases in cultural goods imports values to the EU concerned Switzerland (from €3.5 billion to €3 billion) and the United Kingdom (from €2.7 billion to €2.2 billion).


Double vertical bar chart showing the extra EU imports of cultural goods in 2017 and 2022 for the main trade partners in 2022.
Figure 7: 2021 main partners for extra EU imports of cultural goods, EU, 2017 and 2022
(%)
Source: Eurostat (cult_trd_prt)


Extra-EU cultural goods’ trade flows by category of product


Articles of jewellery were the most exported products to Switzerland and the United States

As shown in Figure 8, in 2022 articles of jewellery were the most exported cultural products outside the EU. In terms of value, Switzerland was the top extra-EU country to which these products were directed, followed by the United States, the United Kingdom and China. With a value of more than €13.8 billion, articles of jewellery covered more than half of the total extra-EU exports of cultural goods.

Works of art exported outside the EU, with a total value of almost €3.3 billion, had as main destinations the United States, the United Kingdom and Switzerland.

As shown in the chart, extra-EU trade of cultural products such as books and crafts, had a more widely distributed pattern among the partner countries. These categories of products had significant shares of exports also towards countries that were not among the EU’s ten main partners for trade in cultural goods.


Sankey flow diagram showing the value in euro millions of extra-EU exports of cultural goods by main partner and by category in the EU in 2022.
Figure 8 : Value of extra-EU exports of cultural goods by main partner and by category, EU, 2022 (€ million)
Source: Eurostat (cult_trd_prt)


Imports

Figure 9 shows the trade relations with the top ten extra-EU partners by category of imported product.

Although China was one of the EU's main trade partners for imports in 2022, with a total value of €6.8 billion, only a relatively minor part of this value was from imported articles of jewellery. By contrast, the diagram shows a clear dominance of video game consoles imports from China, from which, together with Japan, the EU imported almost the entire value of this category of products.

In addition to the case of video game console imports from China and Japan, other EU trade partners were characterised by specific categories of imported products. This was the case for the imports from Switzerland, Thailand, Türkiye and India, where most of the value was from articles of jewellery.

By contrast, from other important EU trade partners such as the United States and the United Kingdom, the EU Member States imported a more heterogeneous range of cultural products, covering works of art, books, musical instruments and antiques.

Sankey flow diagram showing the value in euro millions of extra-EU imports of cultural goods by main partner and by category in the EU in 2022.
Figure 9: Value of extra-EU imports of cultural goods by main partner and by category, EU, 2022 (€ million)
Source: Eurostat (cult_trd_prt)




Data sources

International trade statistics are stored in Comext, Eurostat’s database for international trade in goods. Comext contains statistics on goods traded between Member States (intra-EU trade) and goods traded by Member States with non-EU countries (extra-EU trade). The trade values for other political or geographical entities, such as the EFTA and candidate countries are also collected. The Comext database is built around six main dimensions:

  • reporter (country declaring commercial transactions);
  • partner (trade partners of the declaring country – all countries of the world);
  • flow (exports and imports);
  • product (items by HS, CN or SITC, BEC and CPA depending on the dataset);
  • time (annual and monthly data);
  • type of indicator (the value or quantity of traded products).

Based on the number of dimensions available in the Comext database, the following indicators are compiled for imports and exports of cultural goods:

  • value of trade in thousands of euros (THS_EUR);
  • percentage of country’s total trade (PC_TOT);
  • percentage of total EU trade (PC_EU27_2020);
  • percentage of total cultural trade – at country and EU level (PC).

The data are compiled for the following trade partners:

  • intra-EU;
  • extra-EU;
  • world (intra-EU and extra-EU);
  • main extra-EU trading partners.


Confidentiality can apply to the product code and/or the partner country. Information about a product or partner may be considered commercially sensitive by the provider of the statistical information for the trade value. When confidentiality is granted, data are hidden at the detailed level, which means that the trade is not allocated to the real product code and/or the real partner. Due to this procedure, statistical information disseminated at the detailed level may underestimate the real trade value.

Unit of measure

Trade values are expressed in millions (106) of euros. They correspond to the statistical value, i.e. the amount which would be invoiced in the case of sale or purchase at the national border of the reporting country. It is called an FOB value (free on board) for exports and a CIF value (cost, insurance, freight) for imports.

Identification of cultural goods

The ESSnet-Culture final report (2012) created a framework for culture statistics based on cultural activities, which relate to the intersection between 10 cultural domains and 6 economic functions. Trade is an important aspect of culture statistics and one of the six economic functions (together with creation, production/publishing, preservation, education, and management/regulation).

Eurostat analysed the 10 cultural domains from a product perspective to produce a list of internationally traded cultural goods. Initially, the analysis focused on artistic creation, with the goal of covering products that convey and encompass symbolic, aesthetic, artistic and spiritual values (for example, works of art or crafts). The scope was later extended to various products that did not meet the criteria for artistic creation, but were considered to enable artistic expression or access to cultural content (for example, musical instruments, CDs, DVDs and Blu-ray discs). Cultural equipment in a wider sense (for example, televisions, CD players, and cameras) was excluded.

Based on these criteria, cultural goods and products were identified in seven domains (see Figure 8). The initial list of cultural goods (proposed in 2015) was revised in 2016 to better align the EU’s methodological framework with that proposed by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO). As a result, Eurostat’s culture statistics working group agreed to add jewellery (of precious and semi-precious metals and stones), some handmade ornamental articles and some goods with audiovisual content to the list of cultural goods.

More recently, the list underwent another revision to take into account changes brought about by a revision of the CN classification in 2017. In particular, this revision affected the codes related to support for audiovisual content by removing the distinction between support for sound (music) and for sound and vision (film, video and video games). Now, one grouping is presented for the support of all audiovisual content (available on physical copies) - music, films, videos and video games - under the broad heading of recorded media (covering the previous headings for music in manuscript, gramophone records, recorded magnetic tapes and optical media (CDs), and audiovisual and interactive media). Video game consoles (previously under audiovisual and interactive media) were split from the other codes and are now a separate category.

Statistics on international trade in cultural goods provide aggregated data on cultural goods traded between Member States (intra-EU trade) and between the EU and non-member countries (extra-EU trade).

A detailed list of the CN codes used to create the aggregates of cultural goods can be found in metadata on international trade in cultural goods (Annex 2).

Table showing cultural goods according to cultural domains. The table has two columns, one showing the name of the cultural domain and the other listing the cultural goods included in the domain.
Figure 10: Cultural goods according to cultural domains
Source: Eurostat (Guide to Eurostat culture statistics — 2018 edition)


The impact of quasi-transit (the ‘Rotterdam effect’)

Member State trade flows may be overvalued because of quasi-transit trade. A country’s trade balance is not affected because quasi-transit trade should increase by the same amount as intra- and extra-EU trade flows: extra-EU imports are followed by dispatches to another Member State, and arrivals from a Member State are then followed by extra-EU exports to the final destination).

Quasi-transit trade mainly affects Member States with large ports that trade goods at the EU’s external border. This phenomenon is particularly prominent in the Netherlands (hence it is known as the ’Rotterdam effect’) and Belgium. For example (and in line with EU rules), the Netherlands records goods arriving in Dutch ports that are destined for other Member States as extra-EU imports. Then when goods are released for free circulation, the goods are recorded as intra-EU dispatches (exports) from the Netherlands to other Member States.

Quasi-transit trade is known to affect imports more than exports. In some cases, customs clearance does not occur in the original Member State from which the exports originate but rather the Member State from which the goods leave the EU.


Context

Culture is one of Europe’s greatest assets: it is a source of values and identity and creates a sense of belonging. It also contributes to well-being, social cohesion and inclusion. The cultural and creative sectors can also trigger economic growth, job creation and international trade.

This is why culture is becoming more important in the EU. In line with Article 167 of the Treaty of Lisbon, the EU ’shall contribute to the flowering of the cultures of the Member States, while respecting their national and regional diversity and at the same time bringing the common heritage to the fore’.

The EU supports these objectives through the Creative Europe programme and a number of policy actions set out in the Work Plan for Culture (2019-2022) and Work Plan for Culture (2023-2026). The latter, adopted by the Council of Culture Ministers of the EU, sets out the main priorities for European cooperation in cultural policymaking: empowering the cultural and creative sectors (CCS), enhancing cultural participation and the role of culture in society, unleashing the power of culture and strengthening the cultural dimension of the EU external relations. According to the document, implementation of the Work Plan for Culture (2023-2026) should also be supported by optimised use of quality data and statistics.

Notes

  1. This designation is without prejudice to positions on status, and is in line with UNSCR 1244/1999 and the ICJ Opinion on the Kosovo Declaration of Independence.
  2. The high share recorded in the Netherlands may be attributed in part to the impact of quasi-transit of goods, in other words, the so-called ‘Rotterdam effect’ (see the Data sources section for more details).

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